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If by Land or by Sea
by Heather R. Darsie
Anne of Cleves by Hans Holbein, 1539
Anna von Kleve, known to English speakers as Anne of Cleves, left her homeland in December 1539 to join her new husband, Henry VIII of England. The two had been married by proxy a couple months earlier, in October. After Henry successfully negotiated the marriage alliance with Anna’s younger brother Wilhelm, Duke of Cleves since early 1538, there was the simple matter of getting Anna to England. But which way to take, a sea route or over land? Both options would take Anna through Imperial and French territory, which was no small matter at the time.
The Holy Roman Emperor Charles V and King Francis I of France had an uneasy peace with each other; conversely, this could be interpreted as a situation where Francis I and Charles V were therefore against Henry VIII for the time being. There was no realistic way for Anna von Kleve to reach England without traveling through some imperial territory (she did in fact live within imperial territory governed by her brother) and some of French territory. If Charles V or Francis I wished, they could capture Anna and use her as a political pawn, or cause woe to Anna in any number of ways if she were to be an unwelcomed guest in their lands.
As a bit of background of what caused the possible dangers, we must look to what else was happening on the Continent at the time of Anna’s journey. The Truce of Nice was signed between Charles V and Francis I, bringing an end to the parties’ struggle over control of the duchy of Milan. Charles V’s niece, Christina of Denmark, was made a widow when her husband Francesco Sforza, Duke of Milan, passed away in 1535. The couple had no children. At the start of the Italian War in 1536, Christina was still living in Milan.. Charles V had taken control of Milan, and the transition of power was relatively peaceful, with no strong protests or uprisings. Charles later gave the territory to his son Phillip II of Spain. Francis I had a claim to Milan, over which the war was started. At the end, the Truce of Nice was entered into, causing an uneasy peace between Charles V and Francis I.
Wilhelm had inherited Guelderland in 1539 from a distant cousin who died without any heirs. This was a contested territory between Wilhelm and Charles V, bordering the Low Countries. Charles V felt he had a claim to the territory, whereas Wilhelm had possession of it. It was such a fuss that Henry VIII expressed concern over whether his bride Anna would be able to peacefully pass through the Low Countries, then under the governance of Charles V’s sister Mary of Hungary. Anna was not ready to travel to England until such security could be promised from both Charles V through Mary of Hungary, and Francis I. England and the Jülich-Kleve-Berg territories closed in the Low Countries and France on either side, posing a reasonable threat to both Charles V and Francis I.
When Anna left for England, two trains departed before joining up around Antwerp, thereafter traveling as one train through northern France and on to Calais. Anna was armed with a passport issued in the French language from Charles V on 27 October 1539, a copy of which exists and bears the imperial seal. This allowed her to pass through the Low Countries unmolested. Francis I had begun to warm up Anna’s brother Wilhelm, thereby allowing Anna safe passage to English-held France.
The prospect of traveling by sea at that time of year was certainly a dangerous one; the North Sea would have its share of poor winter weather, posing a danger to Anna and her large retinue. Land was the safest route. Anna was not unfamiliar with traveling about. Indeed, Hans Holbein painted his famous portrait of Anna, now at the Louvre, in the town of Düren, some 63 kilometers from where Anna’s brother typically kept court in Düsseldorf.
Over all, traveling across several countries was dangerous for anyone. If not carrying the proper papers, trouble could ensue, or a traveler could be robbed, or meet any number of gruesome fates. As a Herzogin (duchess) on her way to marry the King of England, Anna would have made an attractive target for political reasons, hence why ensuring safe passage through Charles V’s territory and Francis I’s country was paramount. This sort of travel in the late fall to early winter was no small feat on Anna’s part, and shows her strong character from the start of her entry into English history.
Love learning about the Queens of England? Are you interested in Tudor history or Women’s history? Then pre-order my book, Anna, Duchess of Cleves: The King’s ‘Beloved Sister’, a new biography about Anne of Cleves told from the German perspective!
UK Hardcover
UK Kindle
US Hardcover
US Kindle
Please check out my new podcast, Tudor Speeches.
You Might Also Like
1. Wilhelm V, Anna of Cleves’ Brother
3. Sibylle, the Other Daughter of Cleves
4. Amalia of Cleves, Sister of Anne of Cleves
5. Katharina von Bora
Sources & Suggested Reading
1. Potter, David. Renaissance France at War. Woodbridge: Boydell Press (2008).
2. Letters and Papers, Foreign and Domestic, Henry VII, Volume 14 Part 2, August-December 1539; particularly October 1539, 16-20.
3. British Library Online Gallery. “The North Sea with Vignette View of Towns, with London as if Seen from the Thames.” http://www.bl.uk/onlinegallery/onlineex/unvbrit/t/001cotaugi00002u00064000.html Retrieved 22 February 2016.
4. Passport, on record with the Archives of Nordrhein-Wesfallen. Duisburg, Germany.
5. Norton, Elizabeth. Anne of Cleves: Henry VIII’s Discarded Bride. Gloucestershire: Amberley Publishing (2009).
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Why Nightingales Don’t Mix: Interspecific Competition and Sterile Females
Recent studies illuminate the nature of reproductive isolation between two Nightingale species.
‘There is no competition of sounds between a nightingale and a violin,’ wrote the Serbian poet Dejan Stojanovic. But there is competition between the Common Nightingale (Luscinia megarhynchos) and the Thrush Nightingale (L. luscinia). Two new studies reveal how these species can live side-by-side despite hybridizing.
Secondary Contact
About 1.8 million years ago the two Nightingale species diverged, only to come into secondary contact later on. At the moment, these birds interbreed across a hybrid in Central and Eastern Europe. Where their ranges overlap, they are distributed in a mosaic fashion, resulting in allotopic sites where only one species occurs and syntopic sites where both species can be observed.
common nightingale
A Common Nightingale (from http://www.hbw.com/)
Habitat Segregation
Camille Sottas and her colleagues took advantage of this situation to see how the mosaic distribution affects the Nightingales ecology. The researchers showed that habitat use differs between the species in the allotopic sites: Common Nightingales are found more in drier areas at a slightly higher elevation. There is no difference in syntopic sites. In addition, bill size was more divergent between Common Nightingales and Thrush Nightingales in allotopic sites compared to syntopic sites.
These results suggest that competition is driving these species into different habitats. Furtermore, the habitat-specific food supply is probably leading to divergence in beak morphology. This could enhance reproductive isolation between these species: when you don’t meet each other, you are less likely to interbreed.
A Thrush Nightingale (from http://www.exoticbirdss.com/)
Sterile Females
Despite this developing habitat segregation, Common and Thrush Nightingale do occasionally hybridize. Previous work has shown that females are sterile. But why is this? What genetic mechanism underlies this sterility? To figure this out, Libor Morkovsky and his colleagues compared the genomes of both species. They looked for regions of high differentiation and high divergence.
Some Population Genetics
Wait a minute, the observant reader might say, what is the difference between differentiation and divergence? I am glad you asked. Population geneticists calculate differentiation using a statistic called Fst. This measure compares the amount genetic variation within a population with the variation between subpopulations. The outcome is an indication of population structure. If Fst is close to zero, the subpopulations are freely interbreeding. But if Fst is closer to one, the subpopulations do not share much genetic diversity.
If you calculate Fst for different parts of the genome, you get an idea of regions that are similar (low Fst) and different (high Fst) between species. Regions of high differentiation could be the result of selection or low levels of gene flow. Unfortunately, Fst cannot distinguish between these two processes. That is where divergence comes in, measured using Dxy. This statistic just calculates the number of pairwise differences between two DNA sequences. In other words, absolute sequence divergence. Dxy is expected to be higher in genomic regions with low gene flow.
Mistakes in Meiosis
Calculating these statistics for the Nightingale genomes uncovered many differentiated regions. Within these regions, the researchers found several genes related to female meiosis, an important process in the production of eggs. Previous work has shown that female hybrids do not lay eggs, suggesting that egg production is hampered by incompatible genes in the differentiated regions. Compare this situation to trying to put two pieces from different puzzles together. No matter how much you press, they won’t fit. Something similar happens when you try to combine divergent genomic regions from different species in a hybrid female. It just won’t click.
Sottas, C., Reif, J., Kuczynski, L. & Reifova, R. (2018) Interspecific competition promotes habitat and morphological divergence in a secondary contact zone between two hybridizing songbirds. Journal of Evolutionary Biology.
Morkovsky, L., Janousek, V., Reif, J., Ridl, J., Paces, J., Choleva, L., Janko, K., Nachman, M.W. & Reifova, R. (2018) Genomic islands of differentiation in two songbird species reveal candidate genes for hybrid female sterility. Molecular Ecology, 27:949-958.
These papers have been added to the Muscicapidae page.
2 thoughts on “Why Nightingales Don’t Mix: Interspecific Competition and Sterile Females
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The Swiss 16th–17th-century stained glass is the core of the Pushkin State Museum of Fine Arts stained glass collection. At the same time, it is the most damaged part of the collection that requires conservation.
In the 16th century, the Swiss Confederacy was the largest centre of the small-format stained glass production. The stained glass paintings, along with the preparatory drawings, have a special place in the visual arts hierarchy. A distinctive feature of the Swiss stained glass school was a unique typology that derived from the specifics of the social life in the late 15th–16th centuries: the military mercenary institution played an important role in the society while the nobility was virtually nonexistent.
The museum collection includes the following: welcoming glass panels (German — Willkommscheibe) which Swiss mercenaries often commissioned; illustrative glass panels (German – Bildscheibe) with religious and literary scenes; and diverse heraldic glass panels (German – Wappenscheibe) that were often presented as gifts and signified friendship and special patronage.
The stained glass from the Pushkin State collection was created based on drawings of the famous artists like Hieronymus Lang (1520–1582), Christoph Murer (1558–1614), Hans Jakob Plepp (1557–1597), and Hans Brand (1546–1605). Some of the works have the author’s monogram on them.
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Top 14 Picturesque Schwerin Castle Facts
Germany is home to several of Europe’s most amazing castles, especially in the southern part of the country.
Neuschwanstein Castle and Hohenzollern Castle are some examples of buildings that belong in the world of architectural awesomeness.
In this article, we’ll take a closer look at some of the most interesting facts about Schwerin Castle, one of the most picturesque castles in the world that has an extensive history.
1. It’s located on a small island in lake and city with the same name
Schwerin Castle is an incredible structure located on a small lake island in the southwestern part of Lake Schwerin. This lake is located just east of the city of Schwerin in the northern part of Germany.
This city is the capital and second-largest city of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, the utmost northeastern state in Germany. The city has nearly 100,000 inhabitants and only Rostock, with a population of 200,000 inhabitants, is larger.
Schwerin has been an important city in the region since the Middle Ages as it served as the seat of the grand dukes of Mecklenburg since the 12th century.
This historic region in northern Germany was transformed into the German state of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern after World War II in 1945.
Schwerin Castle and garden
The castle and its garden border the city / Backslash / Wiki Commons
2. A castle has already existed on this location since the 10th century
One of the most remarkable facts about Schwerin Castle is that the original structure on this location wasn’t constructed by German people but by Western Slavic tribes. These tribes formed a medieval confederation of Slavic tribes called the Obotrites.
One of these tribes in this confederation was called the Polabian Slavs. They lived along the Elbe River in what is now the eastern part of Germany. They are credited with building the first castle on Lake Schwerin.
The first mention of this Slavic fort was recorded in the year 973 and the remains of the mound of this fortified structure have been excavated.
Remains of Slavic Caslte in Schwerin Castle
The remains of the Slavic Castle / Ralf Roletschek / Wiki Commons
3. The city of Schwerin and the castle were established at the same time
The Germanic peoples gradually conquered the Slav tribes that lived in this region and they recognized the strategic location of the lake island.
The first Germanic castle on the island was constructed during the reign of Henry the Lion (1129–1195). It was built on the remains of the Slavic fort which was demolished by the Obotrites themselves.
The Slavic tribes were permanently defeated in 1160 and the Germanic fort was constructed shortly after. The city of Schwerin was established in the same year and became one of the most important cities in the region.
Schwerin Castle facts
Aerial view of the castle / Harald Hoyer / Wiki Commons
4. The castle was renovated during the Renaissance but never completed
The castle has served a defensive purpose ever since it was constructed but this was completely changed in the 16th century. The northern Renaissance flourished and medieval fortifications made way for Renaissance architecture.
This project was initiated by John Albert I, Duke of Mecklenburg (1525–1576) who turned the castle into a fabulous palace. The castle was decorated with terracotta, a prominent material used in buildings in the northern part of Germany at the time.
Despite the emphasis on comfort and decorations, bastions were constructed on the northwest, southwest, and southeastern parts of the castle. After all, the location on the island wasn’t enough to ensure full protection.
The Renaissance style continued to be popular due to the magnificent buildings constructed in Low Countries at the time. Additional changes were made between 1635 and 1643 but these plans were never fully realized because of the Thirty Years’ War.
Lake Schwerin Lake
5. It was rebuilt in the Historicism architectural style in the 19th century
The result of the incomplete renovation project in the 17th century was that the palace had become a collection of buildings featuring different architectural styles. The structure had been abandoned as well and was in poor condition at the start of the 19th century.
The final renovation project of the castle was initiated by Grand Duke Friedrich (1800–1842) and continued by his successor Friedrich Franz II (1823–1883).
The result was the epitome of Romantic Historicist architecture. It was inspired by the French Châteaus of the Loire Valley, including the amazing Château de Chambord, and most of the work was completed between 1845 and 1857.
Schwerin Castle fun facts
A view of the stunning castle / Wiki Commons
More interesting facts about Schwerin Castle
6. The Slavic prince who the German peoples defeated to take control of Schwerin was a man named Niklot. The Germans eventually returned the County of Schwerin to the son of Niklot named Pribislav.
7. Pribislav became the first Prince of Schwerin between 1167 and 1178. This was the start of a hereditary ducal line that lasted until the final Duke of Mecklenburg was abdicated in 1918.
8. The city of Schwerin became part of the Duchy of Mecklenburg in 1358. This was also the year that the city became the official seat of the grand dukes of Mecklenburg and Schwerin Castle became their official residence.
9. When the city was established, it also became the seat of the diocese of Schwerin. The Dukes of Mecklenburg became Protestants and the first new Protestant church in the region was constructed between 1560 and 1563 within the castle compound
Schwerin Castle Chapel
The chapel inside the castle / Ralf Roletschek / Wiki Commons
10. The main reason why the castle was in a dilapidated state in the early 19th century is that the court of the Dukes of Mecklenburg had moved out of it in 1756. The dukes only returned in the year 1837 after which the castle received its final redesign.
11. One of the main attractions of the castle’s exterior is the Orangerie. This structure has been used as a museum since 1961. Other parts of Schwerin Castle have been used as an art gallery as well.
Schwerin Castle orangery
The Orangerie of the Castle / Richard Schröder / Wiki Commons
12. The interior of the castle is believed by some to be inhabited by a ghost named “Petermännchen” or “Little Peterman.” He appears in clothes of the 17th century and isn’t larger than the average leprechaun.
13. Because the structure resembles some of the most famous Romantic buildings in history, it is sometimes referred to as the “Neuschwanstein of the North.”
14. The building was seriously renovated in a project that started in the late 20th century. This project wasn’t completed until the year 2019. The main reason was that the building serves today as the seat of the Landtag, the government of the State of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern.
The castle is quite an amazing government building, don’t you think?
Schwerin Castle interesting facts
A view of the castle from the lake / Elisabeth S. Meyer-Lassahn / Wiki Commons
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Liliʻuokalani Took Decisive Action to Stop the Spread of Smallpox
Before becoming queen, Liliʻuokalani served as Queen Regent in 1881 while King Kalākaua was on his year-long world tour.
Shortly after the King’s departure, there was an epidemic of smallpox in the Kingdom. Liliʻuokalani imposed a strict quarantine and by doing so, prevented the spread of the disease from Honolulu to rural Oʻahu and to the other islands, arguably saving hundreds, if not thousands, of lives. Here is her recollection of that event in her own words:
The King has been gone but a few weeks when the startling news was in circulation that the smallpox had broken out in the city. It was supposed to have been introduced from China; but our past experience with the disease had shown us how fatal it might become to the Hawaiian people, and whatever the inconveniences it became necessary at all hazards to prevent its spread. Summoning the cabinet, I had all arrangements perfected to stay the progress of the epidemic. Communication between the different islands of the group was stopped. Vessels were absolutely prohibited from taking passengers. A strict quarantine of all persons infected or under suspicion was maintained; and so scrupulously and energetically were these regulations enforced, that when they were relaxed and quarantine raised, it was found that no case had been reported outside the place of its first appearance. But it was a serious thing to confine its ravages to the city of Honolulu, in which there were some 800 cases and about 300 deaths.
Liliʻuokalani’s establishment and enforcement of a quarantine to stop the spread of a deadly disease was a pono and a culturally appropriate response to which our kūpuna showed their respect by complying. Her quick and decisive action kept the smallpox epidemic from spreading beyond Honolulu and, with the vantage point of history, it is clear that her decision spared many lives and much sorrow.
Foreign diseases ravaged our people for the better part of the 19th century, wiping out entire families. Many of us would probably not be here today had Liliʻuokalani not taken steps to stop the epidemic in its tracks.
Make no mistake – Liliʻuokalani would have had to endure the critics. Her shutdown of communication and travel between islands would have surely angered the business community. But as she wrote, “…our past experience with the disease had shown us how fatal it might become to the Hawaiian people, and whatever the inconveniences it became necessary at all hazards to prevent its spread.”
As it was 140 years ago, in this moment, our personal decisions and actions are critical to stopping the spread of another dangerous disease in our community.
One obvious way to help stop the spread of COVID-19 is by getting vaccinated.
Unfortunately, there has been a great deal of misinformation promulgated about vaccines over the years, most of it generated more recently via social media. And the seemingly rapid development of the COVID-19 vaccines has only inflamed these fears.
But what most people donʻt realize is that the science behind creating vaccines is not new. It has been around for more than 200 years. And that is how the pharmaceutical companies were able to develop COVID-19 vaccines so quickly.
The first vaccine was created in 1796 by a British doctor – ironically, to fight the deadly smallpox virus.
Today, with modern science and technology, there are now vaccines to fight more than 20 life-threatening diseases. According to the World Health Organization, every year vaccines prevent two to three million deaths worldwide from diseases like diptheria, tetanus, pertussis, influenza, and measles. And because of the smallpox vaccination, there has not been a case of smallpox anywhere in the world since before 1980.
The politicization of a life-saving invention like a vaccine is tragic. Because some people have chosen, for whatever reasons, to spread false information, other people will suffer and some will die.
Even if one remains unconvinced that the COVID-19 vaccine is safe and effective, why isn’t everyone respecting and following pandemic safety guidelines (mask-wearing, social-distancing, hand-washing, and getting tested if requested)? Why do these guidelines generate such disrespect, outrage, and pointless rebellion within our community?
Following these guidelines shows aloha. It is reflective of the “collective” mindset of our kūpuna – a mindset that puts the wellbeing of the whole ahead of the comforts of the individual “whatever the inconveniences.”
In an 1855 speech delivered at the opening of the legislature, Alexander Liholiho Kamehameha IV, in response to the horrific death toll suffered by Native Hawaiians from various introduced diseases over the previous 70 years said, “…our first and great duty is that of self-preservation. Our acts are in vain unless we can stay the wasting hand that is destroying our people.”
We each have a kuleana to do our part to make sure that our lāhui, and the larger community, is not devastated by this disease which may “only” kill 1% of its victims, but can last for weeks or months, and leaves up to 20% of survivors with permanent damage to their hearts, vascular systems or lungs.
This is a long, exhausting journey for everyone, but the pandemic is not pau yet. For the time being, and for the sake of our lāhui, we must take this seriously. We must collectively “stay the wasting hand that is destroying our people,” and do everything within our power to stop the spread of COVID-19 “whatever the inconveniences.”
Liliʻuokalaniʻs quote taken from Hawaiʻi’s Story by Hawaiʻi’s Queen.
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45. Describing things
Press "Space" to Play/Pause
Some things are different shapes.
They can be described by their shape.
A circle is round.
A compact disc is a circle.
A square has four equal sides.
A rectangle is similar,
but two of the sides are longer.
A triangle has only three sides.
Have you ever seen anyone play a triangle in an orchestra?
The word "triangle" can stand for an instrument or a shape.
An oval is rounded, but it is not round.
An egg is an oval shape.
The floor is flat.
If something is smooth, it has no bumps or lumps
Silk is smooth.
Some things are rough. Sandpaper is rough.
If something is dull, it is not sharp or pointed.
A dull knife will not cut bread because the blade is not sharp.
If something is pointed, it has a sharp end.
A sharp pencil has a pointed end.
A pencil that has been used a lot, and hasn't been sharpened has a dull end.
Some things are soft. A teddy bear is soft. It feels good to touch.
Some things are hard. A rock is hard.
Soft can also represent a noise level.
If you have a soft voice, it is not very loud.
If someone tells you to speak softly,
they want you to speak quietly.
"Loud" is the word used to describe noises that hurt your ears.
A big truck will make a loud noise.
Sometimes your mother will tell you that your music is too loud.
Start Dictation Next article Previous article
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The invention of the vowel alphabet - at sea
The invention of the vowel alphabet - at sea
450 pages
Genre: Literature, Essay, Humanities, Nonfiction
Who invented it, the vowel alphabet? Did it come south from the Danubian culture, did the Phoenicians bring it with them on their trade routes, or does it have its roots in the Semitic languages of the Near East? Was it even Homer who created it single-handedly when he wrote the Illiad and the Odyssey? What is clear is that around 800 B.C. the vowel alphabet became established, starting from the eastern Mediterranean. In many cultural theories, literacy and democratization are closely linked:
The massive reduction of the necessary signs with an enormous expansion of what can be expressed with them represents in them a turning point of history. Precisely and aggressively at the same time, Klaus Theweleit picks up the threads. The vowel alphabet, according to his speculative reconstruction, is an invention of Greek traders and pirates who could no longer steer towards a fixed home port. On stormy seas, the vowel simply carries better. Memorized in the verse form of hexameter, epics became the central means of communicating belonging. "The Invention of the Vowel Alphabet - at Sea" is a fast-paced journey to the origins of European culture.
German title: Die Erfindung des Vokalalphabets – auf See
ISBN: 978-3-7518-0331-1
Publisher: Matthes & Seitz Berlin
Publication date: 26.01.2023
Sample translation
German pdf available
Klaus Theweleit, born in East Prussia in 1942, studied German and English. Today he lives as a freelance writer with teaching assignments in Germany, the USA, Switzerland and Austria. Between 1998 and 2008, Theweleit was professor of art and theory at the State Academy of Fine Arts in Karlsruhe. He became known for his monumental work Männerphantasien (1977/78), a new edition of which was published by Matthes & Seitz Berlin in 2019. Rudolf Augstein called it "perhaps the most exciting German-language publication of this year" in Der Spiegel after its initial publication.
By the same author(s)
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The famous 18th century astronomer king and the founder of the Pink city of Jaipur, Sawai Jai Singh, built the first of his five astronomical observatories across India. The observatories are known as Jantar Mantar which derives it name from the words 'yantra' (instrument) 'mantra' (formula).
Jantar Mantar is very popular among tourists and the people of Delhi. The structure is another great masterpiece of Indian architecture which shows the scientific acumen of ancient India. Jantar Manter is situated at Parliament Street, very close to Connaught Place. Jantar Mantar is also called Delhi Observatory. It consists of 13 architectural astronomy instruments, built by Maharaja Jai Singh II of Jaipur, from 1724 onwards, and is one of five built by him, as he was given by Mughal emperor Muhammad Shah the task of revising the calendar and astronomical tables. The primary purpose of the observatory was to compile astronomical tables, and to predict the times and movements of the sun, moon and planets. Some of these purposes nowadays would be classified as astrology. It is a remarkable structure which consists of fourteen geometric devices used for measuring time, forecasting weather changes, predicting behavior of planets and finding extraterrestrial altitude. All these devices are fixed structures and point to a specific direction. The largest device or instrument is the Samrat Jantar which is 90 feet high and its shadow is plotted in such a manner so that is shows the exact time of the day. Any weather change or the onset of monsoons can be ascertained by the Hindu Chhatri, which is a small domed structure.
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Best Answer
The Black Death was almost certainly caused by microbes of the species Yersinia pestis. This microbe was carried by oriental rat fleas that live on black rats, so all three species had to be around in large numbers. When rats died of the plague, the fleas looked for new hosts, and though they preferred other rats, they were often unable to find them and bit human beings or other animals, which then got sick and often died.
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2011-09-22 19:09:47
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Vowel sandhi
Also known as: svara-sandhi, ac-sandhi
Vowel sandhi is the name for sandhi changes between two adjacent vowels.
Here is a simple example of vowel sandhi:
• सीता उदकम् इच्छति → सीतोदकम् इच्छति
sītā udakam icchati → sītodakam icchati
Sita drinks water.
Table of changes
Generally, there are two ways we can describe sandhi rules:
1. The traditional approach is to study rules. This approach can be difficult at first. But over time, it helps us master all of sandhi's details.
2. The Western approach is to arrange these changes in a table or grid. This approach is simplistic and misses many details. But it is often easier for beginners to understand.
Each approach has its strengths and weaknesses. In this lesson, we will use both. To start, here is a table that shows the basics of vowel sandhi between two words:
a/ā i/ī u/ū ṛ/ṝ e ai o au
āyavarae 'ā ao 'āva a
āa āā āa āāvā ā
eīviria iā ia iāvi i
eīa īā īa īāvī ī
oyuūrua uā ua uāvu u
oūa ūā ūa ūāvū ū
aryṛvṛa ṛā ṛa ṛāvṛ
aryṝvṝa ṝā ṝa ṝāvṝ
aiyeverea eā eaveāve e
aiyaivairaia aiā aia aiāvai ai
auyovoroa oā oa oāvo o
auyauvauraua auā aua auāvau au
To use this table, find the first sound on the top row and the second sound on the right column. The corresponding cell in the table is the result. For example, if the first sound is i or ī and the second sound is ū, then the result is .
For details, read the rules below.
Similar vowels
If the two vowels are similar, they combine and become long:
• सीता अश्वम् इच्छति → सीताश्वम् इच्छति
sītā aśvam icchati → sītāśvam icchati
Sita wants a horse.
• शबरी इषुम् इच्छति → शबरीषुम् इच्छति
śabarī iṣum icchati → śabarīṣum icchati
Shabari wants an arrow.
Dissimilar vowels
If the two vowels are not similar, one of three things happens.
First: if the first vowel is simple and not a or ā, it becomes a semivowel:
• शबरी अश्वम् इच्छति → शबर्य् अश्वम् इच्छति
śabarī aśvam icchati → śabary aśvam icchati
Shabari wants a horse.
• शबरी उदकम् इच्छति → शबर्य् उदकम् इच्छति
śabarī udakam icchati → śabary udakam icchati
Shabari wants water.
Second: if the first vowel is a or ā, the two vowels combine and become a compound vowel:
• सीता उदकम् इच्छति → सीतोदकम् इच्छति
sītā udakam icchati → sītodakam icchati
Sita wants water.
But if the second vowel is , , or , it becomes a semivowel instead:
• सीता ऋषिम् पश्यति → सीतर्षिं पश्यति
sītā ṛṣim paśyati → sītarṣiṃ paśyati
Sita sees a rishi.
(Note that the result is ar, not ār.)
Third: if the first vowel is a compound vowel (e, ai, o, au), it becomes ay, āy, av, or āv, respectively:
• ने + अ + न्ति → नयन्ति
ne + a + nti → nayanti
They lead.
• भो + अ + न्ति → भवन्ति
bho + a + nti → bhavanti
They become.
These rules explain most of vowel sandhi. With a few more specific rules, we will have a nearly complete picture of vowel sandhi in Sanskrit.
Compound vowels at the end of a word
At the end of a word, the compound vowels -e, -ai, and -o usually make extra changes.
Let's start with -ai since it changes in a more simple way. -ai becomes when a vowel follows it. The idea is that -ai first becomes -āy, as we saw above. Then the y sound is dropped:
• तस्यै अश्वम् ददामि → तस्या अश्वं ददामि।
tasyai aśvam dadāmi → tasyā aśvaṃ dadāmi.
I give her a horse.
• तस्यै उदकम् ददामि → तस्या उदकं ददामि।
tasyai udakam dadāmi → tasyā udakaṃ dadāmi.
I give her water.
In these examples, note that tasyā ends with a vowel and the next word starts with a vowel. Does vowel sandhi happen again? No. tasyā does not combine further.
-e generally follows the same pattern as -ai. -e becomes -a in front of most vowels:
• ते आम्रम् इच्छन्ति। → त आम्रम् इच्छन्ति।
te āmram icchanti. → ta āmram icchanti.
They want a mango.
• ते उदकम् इच्छन्ति। → त उदकम् इच्छन्ति।
te udakam icchanti. → ta udakam icchanti.
They want water.
But if the second vowel is a, then -e doesn't change. Instead, the a disappears:
• ते अश्वम् इच्छन्ति। → ते श्वम् इच्छन्ति।
te aśvam icchanti. → te 'śvam icchanti.
They want a horse.
This change is similar to what happens in the combination aḥ + a. a disappears often in Sanskrit:
• रामः अश्वम् इच्छति। → रामो ऽश्वम् इच्छति।
rāmaḥ aśvam icchati. → rāmo 'śvam icchati.
Rama wants a horse.
-o generally follows the same pattern as -e.
Vowels that don't use sandhi
The vowels , and -e, if they are part of a word that uses the dual number, are never changed by sandhi:
• अग्नी अपश्यम्
agnī apaśyam
I saw the two fires.
• रामो बाहू उद्यच्छति
rāmo bāhū udyacchati
Rama raises his two arms.
• तौ लभेते अश्वान्
tau labhete aśvān
The two of them obtain horses.
Verb prefixes
If a verb prefix ends with a or ā and the root starts with , the two combine to form ār instead of the usual ar:
• उप + ऋच्छति → उपार्च्छति
upa + ṛcchati → upārcchati
(Someone) approaches.
(a + becomes ār because upa is a verb prefix.)
• सीता ऋच्छति → सीतर्च्छति
sītā ṛcchati → sītarcchati
Sita goes.
(ā + becomes ar because sītā is not a verb prefix.)
There are many small details to vowel sandhi. But this lesson is a complete summary of its most common patterns. As you read more Sanskrit, you will understand vowel sandhi instinctively.
We do not recommend memorizing the rules above. But if you would like to practice these rules, you can try applying sandhi changes to the examples below:
• सीता एव पृच्छति।
sītā eva pṛcchati.
Sita herself asks.
• अश्वाः फलानि इच्छन्ति।
aśvāḥ phalāni icchanti.
The horses wants the fruits.
• नरौ नगराणि आगच्छतः।
narau nagarāṇi āgacchataḥ.
Two men come to the city.
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Blaxland, Wentworth & Lawson - easier version
bulletClick here to go back to the harder version of Blaxland, Wentworth & Lawson
Gregory Blaxland was born in England in 1778 and was a farmer. He came with his family to Australia as a free settler and soon owned large areas of farming land in the Sydney settlement. When he realised that he needed more grazing land for his sheep and cattle, he decided to try and find a way across the Blue Mountains. With him went William Lawson and William Wentworth.
Lawson was born in England in 1774 and came to Sydney as a soldier. Wentworth was born aboard a sailing ship travelling to Norfolk Island, where his father was in charge of the convicts. Wentworth was also a farmer and grazed cattle on the Nepean River.
The settlement at Sydney was growing larger as more convicts and more free settlers arrived. As it grew, it was important to find more land to grow food to feed the colony. There were increasing numbers of sheep and cattle, but less and less grazing land. In 1813, there was a bad drought which damaged crops and killed many sheep and cattle causing a food shortage.
A way across the mountains needed to be found, and many tried. However, they always found their way blocked by steep mountains walls.
Blaxland, Wentworth and Lawson set off in 1813 to find a way across. They planned to follow the high ridge. With them they took 3 convicts and a man who hunted kangaroos in the mountains, James Burns. They also took 4 pack horses and five dogs. The horses carried equipment and six weeks' supplies including salted meat, flour, tents, 7 hand guns, compasses, a hoe and tools for cutting.
It was a difficult journey. The explorers followed a ridge that led them high up into the mountains and on either side there were deep, rocky gullies, making it very dangerous. Dew on the ground made the way slippery. A couple of the horses fell because of the heavy loads they were carrying. In addition, they had to cut their way through the thick bushland. It was exhausting work and the men's hands were skinned from cutting through dense bushland and cutting footholds for the horses so that they wouldn't slip on the steep hillsides.
At night, the explorers were forced to spend the nights sitting in darkness away from the campfires because they were afraid that they would be attacked by aboriginals who followed them constantly.
As they walked through the bush, they decided to mark their way by cutting the bark from the trees on each side of the track. This way they could find their way back across the mountains even when the bush grew back. Their progress was very slow and it was difficult finding food for the horses.
When they reached Mount York, they could see what looked like good grass down in the valley below, but it would be very difficult climbing down to it. Using the hoe they had brought with them, they made a small trench, which stopped the horses from slipping. Also, they unloaded the horses because the animals were very weak by this time, and it was important to get them down to the grass as soon as possible. There was water in the valley and the horses ate fresh grass for the first time since starting on the expedition.
After the horses has recovered, they were taken back up the mountains and the supplies reloaded to be taken down the mountains. As it was so steep, the explorers had to carry the supplies part of the way. On May 31, Blaxland, Wentworth and Lawson crossed the valley and climbed a high hill. From here they saw wonderful grazing lands to the west of the Blue Mountains.
By now their supplies were very low, their clothing was rags and their shoes were very worn. Also they were starting to feel ill. The return trip took just under five days and on June 6, they crossed the Nepean River and returned to their homes. They had found a way across the Blue Mountains opening up the settlement. The settlement in Sydney could now spread across the mountains and the settlers could begin to use the land to the west of the Blue Mountains.
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Chapter 2
Question 1
Absolutists considered themselves as having the divine right of kings. This meant that the kings were made absolutely sovereign by God. This was one of the cornerstones that justified their philosophies. The other justification was where absolutism was set to be put in the context of natural law and the law of God. Another justification came about via assimilation where the absolutist rule maintained peace, thus the people would not fight it to remain at peace.
Question 2
The interior and/or exterior of palaces depict the true personality of the leader who rules over a kingdom. These Monarchs liked their taste in art, principles or beliefs in life to dictate how their castles would be designed. They always dictated the designs of their castles in a way to communicate the message that they have the absolute power. The painting at the hall of mirrors at Versailles depicted a monarch who stood in glory after a great victory in battle[1]. This was symbolic to show that he had the power to conquer his enemies. The royal chapel of Versailles had a classic aerial view and that of the Chateau of Marly had a bull’s eye window. All these were exterior designs that were made to send a message of supremacy and royalty to anyone who visited them.
Question 3
The depictions in the interior or the exterior of Louis XIV’s castle showed him standing in a tall proud pose. He also had a brandishing of himself as a Roman Emperor in an engraving on the walls of hi castle. This showed the embodiment of the symbol of royal absolutism. This was achieved by the pose, which symbolized that he had no fear and that he had total control over his kingdom. It also showed that he had absolute monopoly over power and thus the crown should be in accordance to his wishes and beliefs.
Chapter 3
Question 1
The first traditional explanation was by Gabriel Malagrida who was a Jesuit and he argued that the earthquake was similar to the flood of Noah’s time in the Bible, where God unleashed his wrath on the sinful people. However, in this case He unleashed his wrath on the people of Lisbon. Malagrida claimed that the earthquake could not just be termed as a natural calamity. T. D. Kendrick. The Lisbon Earthquake (Philadelphia: Lippincott, 1957), PP. 137-138. The second traditional explanation came from John Wesley who negated what Malagrida had said by saying that the event had nothing to do with God and His wrath on the sinful people. He said that the causes were entirely natural arguing that if it was God then it would not have happened in Lisbon alone and that no single soul would have survived. He also said that so many people have died before in wars and other natural calamities worse than that one in Lisbon so it could not possibly be God in charge. The Works of John Wesley, vol. ii (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Zondervan, 1958), pp. i-2, 6-7, 8, 11.
Question 2
One of the enlightened thinkers, Voltaire, suggested that the earthquake was caused by the effect of the rebelling gravitational pulls of the earth and the celestial bodies like the moon and other planets. Letters Concerning the English Nation. (New York: Burt Franklin Reprints, 1974), pp. 65-66, 96-97, 100, 103, 105-l06. Voltaire writes again maintaining his stand but this time questioning the logical parts of the minds of the other writers of the same subject. He especially concentrates on the writings of Alexander Pope who says that all that happened was bound to happen and that it was good since God knew about it and approved it so “Whatever is, is right”. A. W. Ward. The Poetical Works of Alexander Pope (London: Macmillan, 1879), PP. 199-200. Voltaire negates this in a poem as if to mimic Pope and tell him that God did not play a part in the Lisbon earthquake. Oeuvres completes de Voltaire, nouvelle edition, vol. 9 (Paris: Garnier, 1877), P. 470. David Hume, in “The Essay on Miracles”, suggests that the concept of miracles is impossible since the religious people have never been able to quantify it. He says that it is impossible for the earthquake to be an act of God. David Hume, Essays: Moral, Political and Literary (Oxford: Oxford University Press, i963), PP. 519-521, 524-526, 540-541.
Question 3
The difference between the two explanations is that one is religious and relates the earthquake to a miracle and an apparent act of fury from God, while the other is scientific and explains the scientific phenomenon behind the earthquake[2].
Chapter 9
Question 1
One argument was that they would make the country or state in which they occupied economically stable and raise their economy to levels which could be able to sustain them. This they said they were going to achieve through the exploiting of natural resources that the countries possessed and creating money out of them. They also convinced them that in the process of doing this they would create jobs for their citizens. Another argument that the new-imperialists used to influence the public opinion was to promise them protection. This meant total shielding from their enemies. By promising the poor and vulnerable countries that had no equipment to tap the riches that lied in their own countries, they accepted no questions asked.
Question 2
The new imperialists viewed the indigenous population as primitive people. They viewed them as sources of labor and as economic assets. The new imperialists took advantage of the lack of modernization in the countries they took over and capitalized on it to extort the locals there[3]. The lack of formal education and proper medical services was another reason why the locals viewed the new imperialists as pseudo gods and invited them willingly since they had no such services.
Question 3
The Arguments that the new imperialists delivered to the vulnerable countries that they took over differed from one country to another. This was because different countries possessed different resources and different strengths politically and militarily.
Coffin, Judith and Stacey, Robert. Western Civilizations, Vol. 2 (2nd Ed.) New York, NY: W.W.Norton, 2009.
Wiesner, Ruff, and Wheeler. Discovering the Western Past, Volume 2 (6th Ed.).
New York, NY: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2008.
[1] Judith Coffin and Stacey Robert, Western Civilizations, Vol. 2 (2nd Ed.) (New York, NY: W.W.Norton, 2009).
[2] Ruff Wiesner and Wheeler, Discovering the Western Past, Volume 2 (6th Ed.)
(New York, NY: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2008).
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Tag Archives: lament defined
lament, 1
30 Sep
A dictionary defines lament as both a noun and a verb,
1. The definition of lament is an expression of loss, sometimes through artistic expression.An example of a lament is The Book of Lamentations in the Old Testament of the Bible.
1. Lament is defined as to feel loss, sorrow or regret, often expressed in a physical way.An example of lament is to feel sad and cry at a funeral.
2. An example of lament is to wish you would have done something different with your life.
Another definition speaks of the artistic expression that a ‘lament’ creates from loss, grief or suffering. In the crime/murder novel ‘The Redbreast’, Jo Nesbo, the last sentence of chapter eight, at the book’s first part end reads: ‘He was still staring towards the booth when the relentless lament of the Volvo car horn behind sawed the day in two.’
The author chooses a key place to insert a lament, at the very end of the novel’s first section, subtitled ‘Earth to Earth.’ Harry Hole was, a Scandinavian policeman, has fired his weapon at another policeman erroneously thinking that person was as an assassin. His partner was to sound their car’s horn if she could identify as a policeman so he would not shoot. The external sound comes too late, and thus becomes Harry Hope’s lament, an internal cry that saws his soul in two.
Artistically, the author wants us to experience the character’s internal and the external despair at the same eternal moment. This grief comes at the book’s opening and will be the identifying trope of the character: a never ending grief; a despair; an internal world beyond any hope. The car’s sound can be heard, Harry’s cry cannot. It can only be represented by a screech.
The lament’s use here is a signpost to the essential and radical nature of lament: it is a cry that does not and will not end. It is overflow of deep sorrows that will continue through life and into death. Overflow in this context does not mean ‘waste’ but riches that flows out again and again to be of use, of never ceasing expression. Nesbo’s use of lament seeks to flow Harry’s unspoken cries, his self-silencing, into us, his readers, his feelers.
Laments overflow by their design, their. They are cries, sometimes with words, at times with groaning, or silences but they always flowing.
Laments are everlasting. Ever lasting.
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B3 Activities KS2 KS3 KS4 Disabled People who have made a difference
B3 Activities KS2 KS3 KS4 Disabled People who have made a difference
As United Nations Enable points out, “deep and persistent negative stereotypes and prejudices against persons with certain conditions and differences” exist throughout the world. Yet the present day and recorded history is full of disabled people who have impacted the world. Here are some web based resources and activities.
1.Download http://www.worldofinclusion.com/res/qca/Disabled_People_who_have_made_a_difference.pdf
2.This consists of 27 disabled people who have made a difference. The class in groups try and match photo to caption with the disabled person’s name, achievement and type of impairment.
3.Do a web search and see how many more important disabled people have contributed to history.
4.Make a time line round the classroom of the last 2500 years and make drawings or download pictures of disabled people who have influenced world history and place them in the correct position. Write a paragraph to describe what they achieved.
Here are some websites that may help you. They break disabled people down by their impairments. Some attribute impairment characteristics to people who were never diagnosed when alive. This may be that the condition was not well recognised at the time. Therefore these designations should be treated with some suspicion.
Autism http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RTA5ov3YjbM 2.08 made by 16 year old with Autism
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=axdTT0S3VGI 2.30 Autism Awareness
All types of Impairment
Gives lists of famous people with many different impairments
People with Autism http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_people_with_autism_spectrum_disorders
Retrospective Autism http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retrospective_diagnoses_of_autism
People with Bi-Polar disorder http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_people_with_bipolar_disorder
Blind People http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_blind_people
People with Brittle Bones http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:People_with_osteogenesis_imperfecta
Deaf People http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_deaf_people
People with Depression http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_people_with_major_depressive_disorder
People with Down’s syndrome
People with Dyslexia http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_people_diagnosed_with_dyslexia
People with Epilepsy http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_people_with_epilepsy
People with Learning Difficulty http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:People_with_intellectual_impairment
Mute people http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Mute_people
People with Paraplegia, Quadriplegia, spinal cord injury http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_people_with_paraplegia
Politicians with Physical Impairments http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_physically_disabled_politicians
People with Schizophrenia http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_people_with_schizophrenia
People with a Stutter http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_stutterers
People with Tourette’s http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:People_with_Tourette_syndrome
For famous people with a wide ranging lists of impairments USA focused
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Back to map
Claiming the Sky
Due to its shape and geographical location, the Curonian Spit acts like a bridge for migratory birds, so scientists from all Lithuania and Russia study bird migration here.
On the Russian side, close to the border, is the oldest ornithological station in the world – the Rybachy Biological Station. Only 20 kilometres north of the Russian ornithological station, there is the Lithuanian equivalent called Ventės Ragas. Both Lithuanians and Russians use large nets to catch and ring birds to better understand their migratory patterns. On both sides, birds are also given a nationality, depending on which side of the border the bird is caught in the ornithologists’ nets.
Lithuanian ornithologists boast of being the hardest workers, holding the world record for ringing almost one million birds. The Russians, on the other hand, claim that having the two stations so close is not efficient, as they collect the same scientific data. Finally, after several years of only sporadic contact due to the complexity of crossing to the other side of the peninsula, the two ornithological stations have started a joint cross-border project.
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Museo Chileno de Arte Precolombino
Cultures > Semi-arid North > Copiapo
Patrón de Asentamiento
Most settlements attributed to this culture consisted of small groups of dwellings or villages dispersed along the fluvial terraces of valleys. Their residences were circular or rectangular structures built of dry stone walls and were situated alongside corrals and growing fields. In some parts of the upper Copiapó valley, the people built compact, tightly grouped villages on hilltops with fortified perimeter walls, much like pukaras or forts. These were located to safeguard strategic agricultural zones or the headwaters of rivers. Cemeteries attributed to the Copiapó people were located apart from the villages.
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From Wiki
Revision as of 04:18, 10 August 2007 by Ash (talk | contribs) (Naming Conventions of Relationships: Sentence Correction)
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Languages in India
India is the home to one-sixth of the world's population, and the number of dialects spoken by its people is well above 1500(Ref:Wikipedia Entry). The number of officially recognized languages is still large, at 22. Hindi is the language with the most wide-spread use, but a large percentage of the populace does not understand it. By far, this will be the country for which Geni and its users will have to do the most work for localizing, especially due to browser / Operating System issues in displaying Indic scripts.
Internet Penetration
'Broadband connections' (defined in India as always-on connections of 256kbps and above - as opposed to 2MBps in other countries) are available in all urban areas, which accounts for just about 30% of the population. The rural areas are still stuck at 56kbps dial-up connections, which usually means a much lower usage of internet. Even though the official requirement is just 256kbps, most ISPs have affordable plans for 2MBps connections.
More details available at Wikipedia.
Indian Names
The naming system in India is quite varied from region to region, because of the multitude of cultures and religions. The Wikipedia article gives extensive detail about the naming conventions.
Naming Conventions of Relationships
The naming system used for referring to relatives is also varied from region to region. For example, the mother's brother is called mama in Hindi, the most popular language of India, but the same is ammaavan in Malayalam, the language of Kerala (a southwestern state).
In most languages of India, there are separate terms for referring to paternal and maternal relatives, for in-laws of a male and a female, and even for elder and younger relatives. This is different from the English system of calling all siblings of one's parents as 'Uncle' and 'Aunt', for example.
Due to these conventions, it would be better to add an extra text box to the Geni profile page to indicate the relationship. Better yet, an editable list of custom-relations which are automatically assigned (on top of the existing system). It would require rules for assigning the relation, for example:
If person X is person Y's father's brother, assign relation 'X is the Chacha of Y'.
Personal tools
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Words Based on “Portare”
By Mark Nichol
background image 111
The Latin verb portare, meaning “carry,” is the basis of many words pertaining to moving things from one place to another, as detailed in the discussion below.
The direct descendant of portare is the verb port; the noun port, meaning “harbor” or “opening,” is distantly related, with a common proto-Indo-European root. More specific compounds pertaining to the sense of “harbor” include airport and seaport (and, so far only in fictional contexts, spaceport).
Port also once referred to one’s personal bearing; this term is obsolete, though the sense is preserved in the noun deportment. (Comportment, meaning “behavior,” has a similar sense, although the verb comport means not only “behave” but also “agree with.”) Meanwhile, the verb deport less often refers to deportment than it applies to banishment; the noun form for the latter sense is deportation.)
The two senses of porter derive from the distinct meanings of port; one describes a person who carries (also the source of the surname Porter and the name of a type of dark beer once favored by porters and other laborers), and the other refers to a gatekeeper. (The name of the cut of steak called porterhouse derives from the name of a type of restaurant where porter was served.)
Portmanteau (literally “carry cloak”) originally referred to a court official responsible for bearing a royal person’s mantle, or cloak, and later came to describe a suitcase with two compartments. Lewis Carroll gave the word a metaphorical new meaning of “a word with two meanings packed into one,” a designation for such coinages of his as chortle (probably intended as a mash-up of chuckle and snort).
Something that is portable is able to be carried. Portage, which in its identical French form originally referred to a tax paid for entering a town, as did its Medieval Latin forebear portaticum (also derived from portare), came in English to mean “an act of carrying” and later developed the specific sense of carrying boats across land from one body of water to another.
Portfolio derives from the Italian noun portafoglio, referring first to a case for carrying papers and later to government documents as well as samples of an artist or designer’s work. “Prêt à porter,” adopted directly from French, literally means “ready to carry” but pertains to clothing that is ready to wear—that is, bought off the rack rather than custom-tailored.
Asportation is a legal term referring to the element of larceny that consists of carrying away another person’s property.
To disport is to amuse or divert, from the notion of emotionally or mentally carrying one away. To export is to carry out, and to import is to carry in; the noun forms are exportation and importation. Import, in the sense of “imply” or “signify” (as in “to be of great import”), and the adjective important, the adverb importantly, and the noun importance stem from the notion of “carrying” significance. Purport has the same derivation; as a noun, it is synonymous with the “conveyed” or “implied” senses of import, though as a verb it can mean “intend” or, more often, suggests a specious claim.
Rapport originally meant “reference” or “relation” but came to specifically describe interpersonal harmony, as in the case of two people who develop a close affinity.
Report derives from the sense of carrying information (including an explosive sound, as that produced by firing a gun); a person who does so is a reporter, and what the reporter accomplishes is reportage. To support is to carry as an act of assistance or reinforcement; one who helps by literally or figuratively carrying for another is a supporter. To transport is to carry something or someone from one place to another. A person or device that does so is a transporter (as in the case of the teleportation devices in the Star Trek entertainment franchise), and the act is called transportation.
7 Responses to “Words Based on “Portare””
• Dale A. Wood
“The two senses of porter derive from the distinct meanings of port; one describes a person who carries (also the source of the surname Porter}”.
I think that the following is mostly a Southern custom, but I have also know of some men with the given name of “Porter”, friends and acquaintances of my father and his three brothers. The most famous one of these men was the musician “Porter Wagoner” of Nashville. He was most famous for a song named “The Carroll County Accident” and for his “Porter Wagoner Show” on TV – which often featured the very young Dolly Parton back then.
• Dale A. Wood
In the stories of SHOGUN by James Clavell, there is a minor Japanese character who is such low standing, socially and economically, that the only name that he had was the Japanese word for “porter”. That was his lot in life: to be a porter for his entire adult live, and probably before.
Poor “porter” met his end when he was executed by the Japanese for a deed that looked like nothing at all to the shipwrecked Englishmen. This was much to the consternation to the English captain, “Anji San”, whose real name was Blackthorn.
• Dale A. Wood
I am a man who was “soaked into” American miniseries on TV: ROOTS, SHOGUN, “North vs. South”, “The Winds of War”, “War and Remembrance”, “The Thorn Birds”, PEARL (1978), and the remake of “From Here to Eternity” (1979).
• Dale A. Wood
Speaking of being soaked into things, during 1978-1979, we were soaked in Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, with PEARL and “From Here to Eternity”. There was more soaking then. PEARL starred Dennis Weaver, Angie Dickinson, Robert Wagner, and Leslie Ann Warren. “From Here to Eternity” starred NATALIE WOOD, William Devane, Kim Basinger, and Roy Thinnes.
In case you haven’t seen the connection, there is the one Natalie Wood >—-< Robert Wagner from the two miniseries.
• Dale A. Wood
Note: “(and, so far only in fictional contexts, ‘spaceport’).”
“Au contrare!” The Tyruatam Spaceport in Kazakhstan.
At least, this is the translation of its name into English.
Apparently, the “Kapustan Yar Spaceport” in Russia was a piece of disinformation spread by the USSR and intended to fool authorities in the Western world. Thus, this one was fictional.
• Dale A. Wood
These is a difference in the idioms concerning clothing in many Western languages. In English, we say “to wear” clothing.
In German, the verb “tragen” means “to carry”, but it also means “to wear” in the context of clothing. For example, “Die Frau tragt eine Kleid,” means “The woman is wearing a dress.” “Kleid” means “dress”, but “Kleider” means “clothing”.
The German verb “tragen” is a false cognate with the English verb “to drag”. Hence, one would make the mistaken translation of “Die Frau tragt eine Kleid,” as “The woman is dragging her dress around.”
LOL, this would be insulting: her dress is so bad that there she is in her underwear, dragging her dress around on the floor!
I can imagine someone like Cher or Britney Spears, at the Oscars, in her underwear, dragging her dress behind her!
Likewise in French, “Prêt à porter,” directly means “Ready to wear”, because that is the idiomatic use of the word “porter”, which means “to wear”.
• Dale A. Wood
It is helpful to know what the various nouns mean in different languages. In the right context, these all mean the same: “Kleider” in German, “ropa” in Spanish, and “dress” in English = “clothing”, such as in “formal dress” and “casual dress”.
I will leave it up to you to figure it out in French, Italian, Russian, Japanese, etc.
“Was fuer Kleider werden Sie tragen?” means “What kind of clothing will you wear?” “Ich trage Grossmantel !,” means “I am wearing an overcoat!” Maybe that would be good to wear to the Academy Awards. None of that business about a tuxedo or an evening gown.
Leave a comment:
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Why buses bunch at single stops
May 26, 2015
Infographics / , ,
Maybe you’ve waited at a bus stop for longer than usual, and your bus finally shows up. And then, immediately after, a second bus on the same route pulls up right behind. What gives? Why can’t they stay evenly spaced to improve everyone’s waiting time? Lewis Lehe provides an explanation in a small interactive game.
Two buses travel along the same route, starting off in opposite positions. They make stops and pick up passengers right on schedule. But then add in your own small delays, and you see bunching relatively quickly. It really doesn’t take much to throw off the equal spacing.
So the next time you find yourself in a bunching situation. Don’t hate the driver. Hate the system.
See also Lehe’s other interactive explainers on traffic gridlock and congestion. Lehe, by the way, is a PhD candidate in transportation engineering.
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The Vietnam Tap Code
Target Audience: Grades 7-12
• Provide a brief history of Vietnam POWs
• Support a discussion on the importance of communication between people in dire times
• Teach the tap code to the group and have them use it to communicate with each other
Time: 30 minutes or one class period
1. Using the resources provided in the previous tab, give a brief history of American POWs in North Vietnam.
Discussion Points:
• POW stands for Prisoner of War
• 687 POWs returned after the Vietnam War, with North Vietnam acknowledging that 55 service members and 7 civilians died in captivity.
• POWs were physically and psychologically tortured for propaganda purposes. The most famous of the six camps where they were imprisoned was Hỏa Lò Prison, also called Hanoi Hilton in North Vietnam.
Questions for Students:
• During periods of combat, who would be the most likely to be captured? Why?
2. Students learn about the background of the tap code and hear from firsthand accounts.
Discussion Points:
• Watch The Code produced by Airman Magazine
• While Tap Code is the name given to the system that American POWs used in Vietnam, these type of knock codes have been around for centuries.
• The tap code is based on the Polybius Square, named for the ancient Greek historian Polybius who recorded one of the first mentions of the knock codes between 200-118 BC. That’s more than 2,000 years ago!
• The tap code system was first introduced to POWs in June of 1965, by Captain Carlyle Harris, Lieutenant Phillip Butler, Lieutenant Robert Peel, and Lieutenant Commander Robert Shumaker. Captain Harris recalled hearing about WWII POWs using knock codes and one of his Air Force instructors showed him the simple 5×5 grid code system. The four men used it among themselves until they were separated, which led to the spreading of the code.
• Prisoners were isolated, told not to talk, and punished for not following the rules. They were given very little food and water, tortured and questioned, with some dying due to the torture and malnutrition. Ultimately, the main reason North Vietnam tortured the American POWs was to break their spirit and force them to appear on television or media to discredit the United States’ war effort.
Questions for Students:
• Why is this type of secret communication important?
• What does this tell us about those who were taken prisoner?
3. Return to the discussion of why communicating between POWs was important.
• From Tap Code: The Epic Survival Tale of a Vietnam POW and the Secret Code that Changed Everything, “First and foremost, it was a great morale booster, and it helped us maintain our sanity. If a POW felt totally alone, without any communication with those who were experiencing the same tragic existence, his mental and emotional capabilities were severely vulnerable.
• Communication also helped us order our ranks within the camp. Through tapping or whispering, we were able to discern who was in top command of our POWs. We still adhered to the order of command, which often helped us resist the enemy as a united force.” – Col. Carlyle Harris (Ret.)
• Refer to the military Code of Conduct on the next tab for information about what was expected from members of the Armed Forces if they were captured.
Do the first part of the “Shave and a Haircut” jingle and see if any students respond with the final two knocks.
• To signal that someone wanted to start a conversation, POWs would open with the “Shave and a Haircut” jingle, waiting for the last two knocks as a response that the other person was ready.
Explain the Tap Code Grid
• The 5×5 grid system is separated by rows and columns.
• There is no letter K, instead C is used.
• The first series of taps indicates the row number, the second series of taps indicates the column. Memorizing the first column is the only thing necessary as long as you know the alphabet.
• Once you know if it’s A, F, L, Q, or V you follow the alphabet out from that letter for the second series of knocks.
• The letter X was used as the period or to separate sentences.
Provide an example of a message (Try “NVMM”).
Questions for Students:
• What connections can you make to how you communicate today?
• Do you have a secret way of communicating with a sibling or friend?
Practice, Practice, Practice!
• Students pass messages to each other using the tap code.
• Students practice using the code with the examples provided.
• Students can sit back-to-back with one student tapping while the other translates using the 5×5 grid.
• Space out the students so they aren’t distracted by the tapping of other groups.
• One student could tap on the door to the classroom, while the entire group translates.
• The student translating can write the words on the back of their grid or a blank sheet of paper.
I am an American fighting in the forces that guard my country and our way of life, I am prepared to give my life in their defense.
I will never surrender of my own free will. If in command, I will never surrender the members of my command while they still have means to resist.
The Code of Conduct
WEDS-SUN 10 A.M. - 5 P.M.
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German Genealogy Tip #8: German Umlaut Names Became Double-Vowels in America
Do you know what an “umlaut” is? An “umlaut” a “double dot” mark over a vowel, to indicate a more fronted or rounded pronunciation. Examples of German surnames with umlauts include: Schäfer, Schröder, or Müller.
Schäfer (with an umlaut) is pronounced “Shay-fer,” but if you don’t put the umlaut in, you should technically (in German) pronounce it “Shah-fer”.
When Germans with umlaut surnames immigrated to America, they would often change the way they spelled their surname to drop the umlaut and add an extra “e” to the vowel instead. This was because America, as an English speaking country, didn’t use umlauts, nor did their typewriters. Thus, Schäfer would become Schaefer, Schröder would become Schroeder, and Müller would become Mueller.
This also means that, if you’re an American who is researching your Mueller family history, for instance, and you want to trace your family back into Germany, you are most likely to find your family’s name spelled Müller when you get back into the German records.
1 thought on “German Genealogy Tip #8: German Umlaut Names Became Double-Vowels in America
1. Margie Christian
My great-grandfather was named Leopold Liike. The name had ulaute (?) u in it. (Luke)My family uses the name now as (LIIke double ii)
Could could tell me who I could go to on how to check where this particular name came from? It would be a really be a big help to me. If you could do anything could you tell me how to say Luke with umlaute)? (sp) Thank you for your help You are kind to take my email.
Margie Liike (Christian
Leave a Reply
42 + = 43
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"url": "https://www.schmidtgen.com/german-genealogy-tip-8-german-umlaut-names-became-double-vowels-in-america/"
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Balloon Balance Game
Aug 27 , 2019
Supplies Needed:
1. Containers of varying size (bowls, pots, buckets, etc.)
2. Balloons (same number as the number of containers you have)
3. Rice or beans
1. Set out the containers of varying sizes next to one another starting from shortest to tallest
2. Fill up the balloons with rice and set them next to each container
3. Have your child start at the smallest container and lift the balloon with their foot and place it in the container
4. Once they have completed the smallest, they can move on to the highest until they have successfully placed the balloons in each container
Skills Addressed: Balance & Postural Control
Idea to modify/simplify: You can start by first just practicing lifting the balloon and balancing it before attempting to place it into a container
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"url": "https://therapyspotmi.com/blogs/news/balloon-balance-game"
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The Baghdad Battery: A 2,200 years old out-of-place artifact
The Baghdad Battery: A 2,200 years old out-of-place artifact 1
Some extraordinary archaeological finds have proved that our ancestors were more advanced than we think and they acquired such knowledge that was beyond the timeline, baffling even today’s cutting-edge researchers and scientists. The Baghdad Battery is just one such example.
The Baghdad Battery:
baghdad battery
The Baghdad Battery
In 1938, the German archaeologist Wilhelm Konig found a strange-looking ancient clay jar and others like it as the part of a collection in the National Museum of Iraq, that were attributed to the Parthian Empire — an ancient Asian culture that ruled most of the Middle East from 247 BC to AD 228. Later in 1940, Konig described the 2,200-year-old clay jar as the oldest known electric battery in existence. The jar itself has been dated to sometime around 200 BC. While some claim, Konig dug the clay jar up himself from an archaeological site in Iraq.
Here’s Why The 2,200-Year-Old Clay Jar Is Called Baghdad Battery:
The Baghdad Battery: A 2,200 years old out-of-place artifact 2
Those who’ve examined the clay jar closely say that there’s a number of things that indicate it to be a “wet cell” or “battery.” The nondescript earthen jar is only 5½ inches high by 3 inches across. The opening was sealed with an asphalt plug, which held in place a copper sheet, rolled into a tube. This tube was capped at the bottom with a copper disc held in place by more asphalt. A narrow iron rod was stuck through the upper asphalt plug and hung down into the center of the copper tube — not touching any part of it. That’s why the ancient Iraqi clay jar has been popularized as the “Baghdad Battery.”
The Inner Workings Of The Baghdad Battery:
Baghdad battery of baghdad
Inner details of the Baghdad Battery
If the jar is filled with an acidic liquid, such as vinegar or fermented grape juice, it turns into a battery capable of generating a small amount of current. The acidic liquid permits a flow of electrons from the copper tube to the iron rod when the two metal terminals are connected. This is basically the same principle that was discovered by Galvani 2,000 years later and that Alessandro Volta successfully harnessed into the first modern battery a few years later.
What Was The Battery Of Baghdad Used For?
The Baghdad Battery: A 2,200 years old out-of-place artifact 3
Researchers conducting various experiments with models of the Baghdad Battery, as the results they were able to generate electricity between 1.5 and 2 volts from the models. It’s not a lot of power. However, researchers are still puzzled that what would batteries have been used for nearly 2,200 years ago!
Many have explained the use of the Baghdad Battery saying that the Greeks and Romans used certain species of electric fish in the treatment of pain, they’d literally go stand on a live electric eel until their gout-pained feet went numb. Therefore, the battery was perhaps used as a ready source of less slimy analgesic electricity (Electroanalgesia).
Other theories hold that several batteries could have been linked together to generate a higher voltage for the use in electroplating gold to a silver surface. More experiments with several Baghdad-type batteries have shown this to be possible.
Interesting Facts That You Should Know About The Battery Of Baghdad:
• The Baghdad Batteries are actually terracotta pots which are approximately 115 mm to 140 mm tall.
• Though Wilhelm Konig, the German archaeologist who was the director of the National Museum of Iraq, is widely believed to discover the Baghdad Batteries in the museum’s collections in 1938, it is uncertain whether Konig dug it up himself or found it archived in the museum.
• Wilhelm Konig was among the first to speculate that these 2200-year-old ancient clay jars were in fact batteries in a paper published in 1940.
• It was believed that the batteries were used in ancient times for electroplating gold onto silver objects, or as a ready source of less slimy analgesic electricity. Until today these claims have not been proven and there is no conclusive evidence to support these theories.
• Ancient peoples in Mesopotamia used a process called “fire-gilding” for decorative purposes.
• Ancient Astronaut theorists suggest that ancient Egyptians were very familiar with the Baghdad Batteries. According to their theory, the batteries might have been used to provide light in the chambers of the pyramids and other such secret places. But this theory also has no evidence backing it up. To this day, no written texts have been found anywhere that would suggest the use of electricity in such a way in ancient times, at least not with the “Baghdad Batteries.”
• If these Iraqi artifacts were indeed used as batteries they would predate Alessandro Volta’s electrochemical cell by a millennium.
• Researchers that support the theory about the terracotta pots being ancient batteries suggest that fermented grape juice, lemon juice, or vinegar was used as an acidic electrolyte to generate a small amount of electric current, which was not more than 2 volts.
• Even though there are very few documented experiments with the Baghdad Batteries, in 1978, Dr. Arne Eggebrecht from the Pelizaeus Museum in Hildesheim had conducted a few experiments with Baghdad Battery models (replica) using grape juice as an acidic liquid and thin layers of silver which supposedly resulted in the production of electricity.
• Elizabeth Stone, a professor at the Stony Brook University and an expert on Iraqi archaeology, states that these artifacts were not Batteries and she disagrees completely with anyone trying to suggest otherwise.
• Given the descriptions of the Baghdad Batteries, these were sealed at the top with metal pieces so it would have been nearly impossible to connect them to anything even if they did produce electricity unless the design is altered.
• No wires or any conductors have been found or associated with the Baghdad Batteries.
• There are several other artifacts that resemble the Baghdad Batteries found throughout ancient Mesopotamia, mostly used to store papyrus.
• Research suggests that it is possible that rotted papyrus scrolls placed inside these vessels might have caused acidic organic residue.
So, what’s your thought about the “Baghdad Battery?” Is this really a battery that was used to generate electricity in ancient times? Or, it’s just a kind of terracotta pot to hold papyrus scrolls?
The Battery Of Baghdad:
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The Sibiu Manuscript: A 16th-century book precisely described the multi-stage rockets! 4
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Mysterious ancient laser cut caves were found in India! 5
Mysterious ancient laser cut caves were found in India!
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Journal of Book of Mormon Studies
In the year 1850, Elder Lorenzo Snow of the Quorum of the Twelve Apostles arrived in Italy as a missionary. He and his companions spent much of their time with a Waldensian community. Elder Snow soon began sending missionaries to Switzerland to preach the gospel to French speakers there and began publishing church materials into French. The new materials caused a lot of opposition from Swiss Protestants and Italian Catholics. Elder Snow then went to England, where he solicited the help of an anonymous translator, and together they completed the translation of the Book of Mormon into Italian. Elder Snow returned to Italy soon after, bringing copies of Il Libro di Mormon with him, but he and the other missionaries did not find much success. Because of the influence of the Catholic Church on the government, the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints was not given much freedom in their preaching. Il Libro di Mormon similarly did not significantly help the missionary work. Almost all the Italian converts to the church were French-speaking Waldensians. Because of the lack of progress, the Italian mission was closed in 1867 and not reopened until a century later, in 1966.
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"url": "https://scholarsarchive.byu.edu/jbms/vol11/iss1/8/"
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Germany Forms of Settlement Part II
Elba and the Saale mark a very important historical-ethnographic border also with regard to the locations, as the border embankment raised by Charlemagne to face the Slavs, is not very different from these natural lines. In this second period the great uprooting of primitive forests began (around the 6th century). In the third period which, according to Arnold, begins with the 12th century IX, an intense clearing of the woods takes place; and this period lasts for Hesse up to the 10th century. XII, for eastern Germany up to XIII: in the place names we find the termination – rode (cf. Rodung which means “uprooting”) as well as – schwend, – hage (words which also allude to wood). Then kirchen, (“church”, word that corresponds to the spread of Christianity), and then – tal, – fels, – stein, – burg, names which indicate the fact that the low and flat parts were no longer enough to contain the population which had grown considerably and had to be established in the mountains. These distinctions, which have been found above all in Hesse (Arnold), are valid almost for the whole of Germany. In this way the toponymy can give valuable help to recognize the time in which the villages were formed.
Particular forms of offices correspond to the periods of settlement which are now distinct. At this point we must consider the distinction of the villages with respect also to their planimetric character, and examine their distribution. The whole territory of Central Europe can generally be divided into various zones, according to the prevailing type of settlement. A very interesting type of village is the Haufendorf (Haufen “heap”): ie agglomerated village. This denomination refers to the reciprocal, very irregular arrangement of the streets and houses. The Haufendorf it is characteristic of the area to the west of the border established by Charlemagne. This type of village, due to the economic system, but not exclusive to it, is also called Gewanndorf (gewinnen, “to conquer”). The courtyards or rural residences, about thirty, are irregularly massed, separated from each other and arranged without a predetermined order, as occurs in spontaneous formations; around there is the cultivated countryside. Further on is the land that is not cultivated and which was originally common property.
According to Diseaseslearning, the name of Gewanndorf alludes to the community system from which the village originated: these are centers built by free men who formed themselves into communities and divided, according to the principles of equality (community law or partnership), the land conquered with common efforts to the bush and the swamp, therefore called Gewanne. The complex of crops around the village is called Flur (“countryside”). The village was governed by a community council. In the various stretches of land conquered there were naturally differences (more or less fertile, more suitable for this or that cultivation): each species of cultivated area that was cleared constituted a Gewanne. The community council established which cultivation should be done in each Gewanne, in which each family benefited from a parcel to be cultivated: the kind of cultivation was imposed by the council itself (Flurzwang). For example, only rye was to be grown, or flax, etc. The plots of land were entrusted to families by drawing lots. Thus each family had a parcel in each Gewanne. The complex of the plots of each family scattered in the various Gewannen was called Hufe. This village is particularly characteristic of West Germany and although the conditions of the property have changed, it retains the imprint of its origin. Sometimes the agglomeration is much smaller and is called “Weiler”, characteristic of some parts of southern Germany. It doesn’t get to be a village. The Roman origin has been admitted by some, but it is not proven. The Weiler is also found in Alsace. Then there are the Reihendörfer, that is “chain villages”, developed in the mountain valleys and especially along the water courses, where deforestation was done in order to live on the initiative of feudatarî: this is what the denomination of Waldhufendörfer alludes to.with which they are also known. They are much more recent than the agglomerated villages. A road was opened along the watercourse and the various rural courtyards (Höfe) arose next to the road in very long lines. Relative to each court is a bottom made like a strip that goes up the corresponding slope of the valley. This type of village is, it can be said, widespread throughout Germany. Now we see the types of villages east of Elbe and Saale. First of all, Strassendorf has to be considered: the houses are lined up along aisles joining two main streets, or along a single street. Its origins seem to date back to Frankish colonization: they were built on the basis of dividing the land into plots of equal extension, that is, according to a plan that recalls that of the chain village. This whole area is also of high interest for another type of village: the round village, or Runddorf, or even Rundling. It is always beyond the limes of the Carolingian Empire, but it becomes less frequent as one proceeds towards the east: in Prussia and Posnania we no longer find them; instead it is located west of the Elbe between Saxony and Thuringia and Franconia. Around a central area that communicates with the outside by means of a single exit, there are the houses arranged in a circle and an external road runs all around. This provision can be explained by an essentially defensive reason. Since it is frequent in the area where Slavic populations had settled, many considered it of Slavic origin; the fact remains, however, that it is found on the Ems and in Jütland.
Germany Forms of Settlement 2
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Remembering British WWI Soldiers
This A2+ level article is an opportunity to mention the 100th anniversary of the end of WWI and see how Anglophone countries commemorate their fallen soldiers. It can be used as additional input to what the students study in History. It can also raise the interest of some students to watch the archive film “They Shall Not Grow Old” by Peter Jackson.
Vocabulary: war, numbers (using commas to separate thousands and using points) and dates, nationalities, qualifying adjectives
Grammar: preterite, the passive form, the conditional (reception)
Phonology: the different sounds the plural “s”
Cultural element: British involvement in WWI
Find more of heroism in wartime in Speakeasy Files 3e: including the remembrance, soldiers, trench life, propaganda and women and children's experience of war.
Webpicks Useful websites and online tools for classroom use
> Battle of the Somme WWI Webpicks
Notion(s) culturelle(s) : "Des repères géographiques, historiques et culturels"
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The History of Pawn
Pawnbroking humankind’s oldest financial institution, pawn loans can be traced back at least 3,000 years to ancient China.
Pawnbroking also thrived in ancient Greece and Rome, often giving merchants a way to fund their small shops or fund ships for trade. In fact, the word “pawn” stems from the Latin word “patinum,” meaning cloth or clothing. For the working class, clothes were often the most valuable items they owned and could be pawned to meet everyday needs.
Prominent families such as the Lombards of England and the Medicis of Italy became known as money-lending families. England’s King Edward III famously pawned his jewels to the Lombards in 1388 to help finance war against France.
In the 14th and 15th centuries in Europe pawn as short-term credit became an important way of financing business endeavors and granting temporary aid to the poor. Pawns also financed events that changed world history! Queen Isabella of Spain famously pawned her royal jewels to finance Christopher Columbus’ voyage to the New World.
In the 18th century, public pawnshops began offering low-interest loans to the poor to curb debt. In the 19th century, the practice of pawning clothes on Monday and retrieving them on Friday–“payday”–was a common way for poor people to make it through the week.
Since people in need of quick cash were more apt to be on society’s fringes during this era, protections were put in place to try to prevent the pawning of stolen items. The Pawnbrokers Act of 1872 in England established regulations protecting pawnbrokers who inadvertently sold stolen items. This act also stipulated the amount of interest charged on pawned items and set out general guidelines for the industry, establishing a regulation pattern that exists even today.
Today, many people depend on pawnbrokers to help them meet daily financial needs not offered by other institutions. Pawn customers represent the working families of America who periodically experience an unexpected need for short-term funds. Pawn loans keep the electricity on, the rent paid and cars running with full tanks of gas. Today’s pawn stores are attractive, welcoming places to do business. Most of them are family-owned and operated stores that offer superb customer service. Pawnbrokers comply with all federal, state, and local regulations and laws. In most jurisdictions, they provide local law enforcement with data on all transactions daily.
Traditionally, the pawnbroker’s symbol is three gold spheres hanging from a bar. This stems from St. Nicholas, recognized in America as Santa Claus, is the patron saint of pawnbroking. He is reported to have left three bags of gold so the daughters of a poor man could afford to marry. Later the tradition transformed the bags into three gold balls, which became the symbol of pawnbrokers.
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speech and language teaching concepts for The Firefighters' Thanksgiving in speech therapy
Frequent Speech Sounds:
/k/ initial
/ts/ final
helping others
community helpers
Book Details:
Diverse Characters: Yes
Age Recommendation: Early Childhood, Elementary
The Firefighters’ Thanksgiving
By Maribeth Boelts
It’s Thanksgiving Day at Station 1, and Firefighter Lou has planned a fabulous meal for everyone. But each time the alarm sounds, the firefighters run to an emergency, leaving behind half-peeled potatoes, unbaked bread, and melting ice cream. Then, at the biggest fire of the day, one of the firefighters gets hurt. Will they still be able to find a way to celebrate Thanksgiving?
This unique perspective of Thanksgiving can be used in speech therapy to address inferencing. It is also great for sequencing and rhyming! Discover more of the speech and language teaching concepts for using The Firefighters' Thanksgiving in speech therapy below:
Key Teaching concepts
Narrative Structure:
complete episode
Narrative Concepts:
illustration study
repetitive text
verbs (present tense)
phonological awareness
repetitive text
order of what the firefighters were able to complete in between calls
shift, list, cart, through, split, tab, peel, hose (noun and verb), gear, tank, prank, frozen, check, record, details, forgotten, pace, pray, news, raw, feast, spread
How do the firefighters work as a team?
How do the firefighters help others?
Why are the firefighters worried?
How does the community share how thankful they are for the firefighters?
Who are you thankful for in your community?
How can can you show the people in your community that you are thankful for them?
Notice the firefighters’ body language and facial expressions.
verbs (present tense)
Text Features:
repetitive text
Phonological Awareness:
What do you think is on the list?
Where do you think they are going?
What does “a call comes in” mean?
What happens to the groceries?
Why was their ice cream on the floor at the store?
Why do they wash the trucks and hang the hose to dry?
Why do they pack up gear and fill the tank?
Why would it be too late to cook the turkey?
Why is it important to check the equipment?
Why is it important to fix a tire/record details/refuel/change the oil?
Why do they throw out the pie crust?
Why do they forget about the meal?
Why do you think the families will be calling? Whose families?
Who brought the firefighters food?
How do you think the firefighters will feel when they return to the station?
Why do you think the firefighters spend their Thanksgiving at the fire station rather than at home with their families?
How do you think they spend Christmas, Halloween, New Years, etc.?
Who else do you think spends their holidays at work? Why?
How do you think the firefighters will spend Thanksgiving?
Will they be able to finish making the Thanksgiving meal? Why or why not?
Is it too late to finish their Thanksgiving meal?
Do you think Lou will be ok?
Do you think they will eat a Thanksgiving meal now?
Who do you think will make the Thanksgiving feast?
If you are interested in seeing other Thanksgiving books to use in therapy, then check out the Seasonal Narrative Teaching Points Book List for a printable copy.
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What are Saccades?
Saccades are defined as fast burst-like movements of the eye intended to fixate and maintain visual acuity of a desired object on the fovea. An example of a saccade is when an individual quickly directs their visual focus, fixating on one object for a period of time then quickly directing their visual focus somewhere else as needed (as when moving through heavy traffic, for example). During the time it takes to quickly move the eyes from one desired object to another, vision is transiently suppressed and for that brief period of time, visual acuity cannot occur due to the velocity of the saccadic eye movement. So how is a saccadic eye movement executed in the body, exactly?
Neurological Pathway of Saccadic Eye Movements
The saccadic neurological pathway can be classified into two groups: one responsible for function and the other for location. These divisions are known as the supranuclear pathway and the infranuclear pathway, respectively.
The Supranuclear Pathway
The supranuclear pathway is defined as any neurological structure that is ‘above the nucleus’; specifically, any relevant neurological structure that is superior to the nucleus of the corresponding cranial nerves involved in the innervation of the eyes. When describing neurological pathways as “supranuclear”, it is inclusive of the midbrain, pons, and any other area involved in planning, executing, and processing extra-ocular movements.
The origins of the supranuclear pathway can be found within the frontal eye field (FEF) of the frontal cortex. This is where saccadic motor “commands” are initiated. The FEF is essentially the “saccades control center” in the brain.
Certain areas of the FEF, such as the Dorsal-Lateral Prefrontal Cortex, are involved with working memory and programming saccadic movements to remembered targets (a hockey goalie who shifts gaze constantly from one player to another, for example). These saccadic movements require the Dorsal-Lateral Prefrontal Cortex since the task is to remember where each player is on the ice, and to help plan future saccades according to the changing demands of the environment.
Another area of the FEF, known as the Supplementary Frontal Eye Field, also has a connection with complex and learned behaviours (driving a vehicle while shifting focus efficiently and effectively from one object to another, for example). This has become a learned saccade task and is an automatic process thanks to the Supplementary Frontal Eye Field.
Once the FEF has initiated the saccade motor “command”, communication continues via a descending pathway that projects caudally. This descending pathway could be thought as a series of “relay” stations where the “command” is organized by excitatory and inhibitory pathways that travel towards the final supranuclear destination (midbrain and pons). These “relay” stations mainly include areas known as the caudate nucleus and the superior colliculus. Other indirect and influencing pathways do exist and include the basal ganglia. It’s useful to think of the descending pathway in terms of a “balancing act” involving inhibitory and excitatory interneurons that refine the “command” initiated by the FEF as these projections terminate in the midbrain and pons, respectively.
What are the final destinations of the supra nuclear pathway? It depends on whether the saccadic movement is vertical (eyes moving up and down on y-axis) or horizontal (eyes moving side to side on x-axis). The final supranuclear destination for horizontal saccades terminates contra-laterally at a structure of the pons called the Para-Pontine Reticular Formation (PPRF). The PPRF can be thought of as a “bridge” between the supranuclear and infranuclear pathway, which is where the Horizontal Gaze Center is located. The PPRF communicates the saccade signal to the corresponding infranuclear pathway/cranial nerve in order to produce “burst-like” motor movement of the extra-ocular muscles of the eyes.
In comparison, the Vertical Gaze Center is located in the thalamomesocephalic junction (TMJ) of the midbrain, and has a similar function to the PPRF in so far as the stricture acts like a “bridge” to the infranuclear pathway.
The Infranuclear Pathway
The infranuclear pathway involves the nucleus of the corresponding cranial nerve, the cranial nerve, any interneurons required for coordinated binocular function, and the neuromuscular junction where the cranial nerve communicates with a specific extra-ocular muscle. The infranuclear pathway has several main functions, two of which are visual yoking and the execution of gaze-directed motor movements via the extra-ocular muscles.
What is “Yoking” as it Pertains to Vision?
Yoking” can be observed when both eyes move in the same direction at the same speed. This is a requirement to successfully achieve binocular coordinated saccadic movements. For horizontal saccades, this is achieved via a bundle of interneurons known as the Medial Longitudinal Fasciculus (MLF), which allows for communication between eyes so that there is movement in the same direction at the same speed as the adducting eye. The MLF is the interneuron that allows for visual yoking to occur for horizontal saccades.
For yoking in the vertical plane to happen, an intricate interneuronal pathway between the thalamomesocephalic junction and the cerebellum is activated and requires bilateral coordination from both eyes. Once yoking is achieved, all corresponding cranial nerves project to their target effector muscles and essentially act as the “peripheral” motor nerve of the pathway. This is where extra-ocular movements can be observed and is the final destination for the saccadic pathway.
The table below shows the cranial nerves and effector muscles in relation to corresponding gaze movement.
Gaze Plane
Movement within Plane
Cranial Nerve
Effector Muscle
Horizontal Gaze
CN VI (Abducens)
Lateral Rectus
CN III (Oculomotor)
Medial Rectus
Vertical Gaze
Up Gaze
CN III (Oculomotor)
Superior rectus & Inferior oblique
Down Gaze
CN III (Oculomotor) & IV (Trochlear)
Inferior Rectus & Superior oblique
A Visual Representation
Below is a visual representation illustrating the pathway for a right horizontal saccade. In this case, the left FEF communicates via descending projections towards the right Horizontal Gaze Center (PPRF). At the level of the Horizontal Gaze Center, there is an interneuron that communicates with the left CN III (via decussation); this is to achieve adduction of the left eye (medial rectus), as the right eye moves into abduction (lateral rectus via CNVI). This ability for both eyes to move in unison towards the right demonstrates that the two eyes are yoking together, meaning that they both move in same direction at the same speed.
Saccadic Pathways and Concussion
In the context of concussion, having an understanding of the saccadic pathway can help contextualize why saccades may be dysfunctional to some degree. A concussion is a minor traumatic brain injury that has a strong neurophysiological component, in which saccadic deficiencies are often seen post-injury. These deficiencies often reflect dysfunction due to the neurometabolic cascade within the brain post-concussion, where a chemical imbalance and a reduction of blood flow to the brain results in an overall energy mismatch and reduced functioning. The goal with post-concussion ocular rehabilitation is to exercise the saccadic pathways within a sub-symptom threshold limit so as not to drive a sympathetic nervous system response. The ocular system is one of several systems to consider when rehabbing concussion; other important components to rehab such as sleep, cardiovascular exercise, post-concussive headache (to name a few) should also be thoroughly assessed in order to properly care for an individual recovering from mild traumatic brain injury.
Averbuch-Heller, Lea. “Supranuclear Control of Ocular Motility.” Opthalmology Clinics of North America, vol. 14, no. 1, Mar. 2001.
Beck, R. and Holmes, M., 2011. Functional neurology for practitioners of manual therapyEdinburgh: Churchill Livingstone Elsevier.
Lee, Andrew G. “Horizontal and Vertical Gaze Centers.” YouTube, YouTube, 5 June 2017, www.youtube.com/watch?v=K_5W83gwC-8.
Lee, Andrew G. “Saccades- Control Centers.” YouTube, YouTube, 28 November 2018, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iNYRPcrwJXw&t=12s.
Lee, Andrew G. “Vertical Gaze.” YouTube, YouTube, 8 August 2019, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5quebRTHL5A.
About the Author
Chris is a Massage Therapist and acupuncture practitioner from Ingersoll, Ontario with a special interest in managing concussion and sports injuries. While not in clinical practice Chris has served as an Instructor in Massage Therapy at the Canadian College of Massage and Hydrotherapy.
With prior education and experience as a Kinesiologist, Chris has a passion for movement and how it translates to improved patient outcomes. Whether it’s managing your symptoms virtually, or assisting students in preparing for an exam, Chris is excited to help you on your journey.
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Oceanographers Explain the Origins of Tampa Bay
What made Tampa Bay Tampa Bay? Geological oceanographer Al Hine and colleagues Beau Suthard and Stan Locker of the University of South Florida’s College of Marine Science explain the origins of Tampa Bay’s bottom, which dates back many million years, in a paper soon to be included in a special symposium issue of the journal Sedimentology.
In the journal, published by the International Association of Sedimentologists, the USF scientists describe Tampa Bay’s geological features and unravel geological messages related to its creation.
“Millions of people live around Tampa Bay. We travel over it on bridges and swim and fish in it,” says Hine. “It’s part of our daily life, but we know very little about how it came to be.”
According to Hine and the article’s co-authors, the bottom of the bay was birthed beginning about 15 million years ago, through a combination of ancient sink holes, folds, sags and warps, occurring over many millions of years.
“The basin that is now Tampa Bay formed between 15 and 7 million years ago, when the underlying limestone was deformed by collapses,” explained Hine. “The basement of Tampa Bay consists of ancient sub-basins deformed into sinks, folds, sags and warps, later filled in by the by the sand sediments.”
About four to six million years ago, the wrinkled, shallow bottom was topped off by a massive transport of quartz sand that originated 1000 miles north.
“Ever since the first geologist walked local beaches in the early part of the last century, it was obvious to him that what we call the Florida Platform received a shipment of sand in the region’s deep, geologic past,” explains Hine.
How the sand got here is still not very well understood. But millions of years after it arrived, the ancient sand shipment was remobilized locally, probably in very wet years by river flow, and it flowed into and filled in the bottom of Tampa Bay.
According to the USF researchers, the foreign sand originated in silicate-rich bedrock in the Appalachian Mountains and Piedmont area in what is now the eastern U.S. mid-Atlantic region. The rocks that weathered to produce the sand were already hundreds of millions of years old.
“It appears that exposed silicate-rich bedrock, chemically weathered, arrived from the north through multiple sources, most likely through runoff into streams and rivers running from the mountains to the coast,” Hine speculates.
The sediment flow was deposited in the Georgia channel system and, eventually, during times when sea levels were high, the sand eventually arrived in Tampa, adding to the geological features of Tampa Bay’s basin, already millions of years old.
This combination of geological occurrences, says Hine, formed what geologist call the Florida Platform along the West Coast of Florida where geologists also observe many ancient shorelines, the record of many fluctuations in sea levels over many millions of years.
“By the late Pliocene and early Pleistocene eras - some one to two million years ago - there was a great reduction in the silicate transport system and a similar reduction in rainfall, runoff and sand transport from local rivers,” says Hine. “Tampa Bay as we know it was then geologically complete.”
The research team used a seismic reflection profiler to carry out their research. The technology, like sonar, throws out a sound beam that bounces off layers of rock and sediment and returns to the surface where the impulses are picked up by hydrophones. The data, analyzed by computer, reveals geological features as images.
The authors point out that Charlotte Harbor, 100 miles to the south, was formed by the same geological processes – basin collapse, fold, sag and warp – and capped by an overlay of transported silicate.
So, how can we use this knowledge?
“The research can help us understand fresh groundwater flow and how nutrients or pollutants get into the bay,” says Hine. “Knowing the thickness of the sediment and where the bedrock is important to dredging and pipeline burying.”
Source: University of South Florida
Citation: Oceanographers Explain the Origins of Tampa Bay (2006, November 20) retrieved 5 December 2022 from https://phys.org/news/2006-11-oceanographers-tampa-bay.html
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The Arts
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Hahoe Pyolsin-kut mask dramaBookmark
Learning area: The Arts
Year level: Year 7, Year 8
Country: South Korea
This learning sequence examines the Korean Hahoe Pyolsin-kut mask drama. Students will gain insight into the purposes and function of this traditional form of folk drama as a means of political commentary. Students are provided with the opportunity to make masks and perform a Hahoe play and an original satirical play using the appropriate conventions.
Key inquiry questions
• What are the purposes and functions of drama in societies, using the Hahoe mask drama as a context?
• What are the dramatic components of a Hahoe mask drama?
• How can the principles of the Hahoe mask drama be used to create and present a new dramatic work?
Hahoe masksExamples of Hahoe masks
Image: Julie Facine
Related resources
Activity 1: Korea and the Hahoe mask drama
In this activity, you will:
• learn about the people of Korea
• examine the purposes and functions of drama in societies such as ancient Korea
• use the Hahoe mask drama as a context.
Key inquiry question: What are the purposes and functions of drama in societies, using the Hahoe mask drama as a context?
About South Korea and mask drama
1. Explore the website and write down five interesting facts about the Republic of Korea (South Korea) that you didn't know.
2. Pair and share these with the person next to you. Select one fact per pair and create a collaborative list as a class. Use this to write a descriptive paragraph about South Korea.
3. On the Go Korea! Then and now page, select the photograph in the centre of the top row, 'Chuseok: honouring ancestors'. Once you have enlarged the photograph, roll over the image to view information tabs. Discuss, as a class, the importance of family and tradition in South Korea.
4. Investigate the meanings of the terms satire and caricature. Write definitions for each.
5. Read the background notes on the Hahoe Pyolsin-kut mask drama and answer the following:
• Explain how the background information supports the importance of tradition and family.
• Explain how satire and caricature are used in the Hahoe mask drama.
• Discuss why this form of drama evolved in a village.
• Give reasons why you think this type of play was allowed by the officials.
• Suggest reasons why actors sometimes wear masks in their work.
6. Research Italy's Commedia dell'arte and compare and contrast the two dramatic art forms using a Venn diagram
7. Discuss your findings and why these forms of drama were relevant to the peoples of Italy and the Korean peninsula. Finish your discussion by identifying whether similar plays exist today.
Image: Adam Nicholson
Activity 2: Hahoe masks
In this activity, you will:
• examine the dramatic and visual elements of the Hahoe mask drama
• identify specific themes of corruption in religion or nobility, love triangles and social class struggles
• conduct a reading.
Key inquiry question: What are the dramatic components of a Hahoe mask drama?
1. Look at the image of Hahoe masks, read the descriptions and answer the following questions:
Hahoe_masksExamples of Hahoe masks
• What are the common features of the masks?
• Why do you think the masks have been designed this way?
• Describe the dramatic features of the mask drama performance and explain how they support the use of masks.
2. Read through the script of a Hahoe play in Activity 3 and write a paragraph describing the themes of the play and how humour is used to highlight political issues.
3. Discuss your summary with the rest of the class and what it can tell us about Korean society at that time.
4. Choose members of the class to play each character and conduct a reading of the play. If reading, remember to use your voice to emphasise the comedic (humorous) elements of the script.
5. Perform the play as directed by the script. Think about how each character moves and uses their voice and hands.
6. You may wish to add the musicians playing small drums and gongs. They will herald the beginning and end of each act.
7. Once the performance has finished, discuss as actors and spectators the impact of the play and how it has increased your knowledge and understanding of Korea's past.
Image: Julie Facine
Activity 3: Create a satirical performance
In this activity, you will:
• learn about the principles of the Hahoe mask drama
• use these principles to create and present a new dramatic work that satirises a recent topical event.
Key inquiry question: How can the principles of the Hahoe mask drama be used to create and present a new dramatic work?
Preparation for the performance
1. Explore a range of current online Australian political cartoons where prominent individuals are caricatured and satirised.
2. Examine the key features of the characters. Discuss, as a class, how they are portrayed and why they are drawn this way. Compare them to the Hahoe masks and explain the similarities.
3. Break into four groups to discuss a situation that has occurred where there is an authority figure who can be caricatured. This should be done in a respectful way.
4. Develop a summary of the event and the characters.
5. Prior to writing a play about this event, discuss the key features that will be emphasised when making masks for each character.
6. Designate roles for each member of the group. These may include:
• writing the play
• creating a mask
• playing a character
• directing the play
• organising the stage set.
7. If you are making a mask, use the mask making instructions below.
8. Rehearse and perform the plays.
9. Discuss as a class how effective the plays were in highlighting an event in a humorous way.
Balloon mould mask-making
You may wish to make a mask based on one of the characters in Activity 2. Follow these simple instructions:
1. Blow up a balloon and hang it from a string.
2. Build up six layers of papier mâché on the front surface of the balloon. As the layers develop, a pear-shaped mask forms.
3. Cut the balloon down and build up the mask's features using rolls of glued paper and papier mâché squares.
4. Pop the balloon and trim the base of the mask. Sandpaper the rough edges and apply a coat of white interior paint. Paint the surface according to the character you wish to create. Add hair and other adornments if necessary.
The play
Act I
(Kakshi, the bride, enters dressed in a long red skirt and a green cropped top, standing on somebody's shoulders. To the accompaniment of drums, she dances around with a long white scarf draped around her shoulders. This is supposed to encourage the audience to donate to the actors.)
Act II
(Two Chuji, fighting lions, enter. The lion is a supreme creature in Buddhism. This scene is essential to the mask drama in order to purify and exorcise the evil spirits from the performance. The lions fight each other and both fall down. Choraengi, a scatterbrained young boy, enters and chases them away.)
(Paekchong, the butcher, enters with a large straw bag slung over his shoulder. He dances around to the music and is full of good humour. A big brown ox dances in and they dance together. Paekchong then kills the ox. He hacks away at the ox and then stands up.)
(Paekchong holds up a red object high in the air.)
Paekchong: Who wants to buy an ox heart? Look! It's still warm. Eat it like this, and weaklings will become strong, and dizziness will disappear. Nobody wants it? Huh, these people, fancy not knowing the value of a fresh ox heart.
Act IV
(Halmi, a poor granny, enters, bent over her broom. She is shabbily dressed and her hair is covered with a scarf. She sweeps for a while and then stands upright, stretching her doubled-over back.)
Halmi: Oh, my back! It's killing me. Listen, folks, have you ever seen a more wretched creature than me? Widowed at 15, only three days after the wedding. Poor little me. I have to fend for myself. Begging for food, begging for work. Always hungry, often cold! Oh, I don't know. I'll stop working and dance a bit.
(She dances around, then she takes out a bowl and goes around the audience begging for money. When no one puts anything into it, she gives them a nasty look and exits in a huff.)
Act V
(Pune, a young woman of easy virtue, enters. She is dressed in a bright blue skirt and a canary yellow top. Her mask is heavily made up to look like a bride with thick white powder, pink circles on the cheeks and one in the centre of the forehead, and red leaves. She looks around and, making sure that no one is nearby, squats down behind a shrub and relieves herself. At that moment, Chung, the Buddhist monk, appears and gives her a fright. She quickly smooths down her skirt.)
Chung: Hello, pretty maid. I may be a monk, but I am also a man. I am attracted to you. Come dance with me.
(Pune feigns resistance coquettishly. They dance together for a while, and, carrying her over his shoulder, the monk disappears behind off into the wings. Choraengi, the rash meddler, enters and points to where the couple have left.)
Choraengi: Oh, my God! Did you see that? Whatever next? A Buddhist monk and a woman of easy virtue! Well I never!
(Enter Imae, the village fool, smiling broadly.)
Choraengi: Hey, village fool! Did you see the monk and Pune disappearing together? Have you ever heard of such a thing?
(Imae just grins stupidly.)
Choraengi: Ah well, no matter. It's a funny world. Come dance with me.
(The two of them dance and exit.)
Act VI
(Yangban, the aristocrat, and Sonbi, the scholar, are sitting down, a long way from each other. They clear their throats unnecessarily, stroking their long beards, each trying to look more dignified than the other. Choraengi runs in, all excited.)
Choraengi: Oh, my masters. I have just seen something that is really outrageous. Absolutely scandalous! Can you imagine, masters?
Yangban: What is the fellow carrying on about?
Sonbi: Come to the point at once.
Choraengi: Pune and the Buddhist monk, my lords, I saw him carry her off into the bushes with my own two eyes. Have you ever heard of such a disgraceful thing?
Yangban: Pune and the Buddhist monk of all people. What is the world coming to? However, not to worry. Just bring Pune here.
Sonbi: That's a good idea. Boy, go fetch her.
(Choraengi exits. After a little he re-enters with a coy Pune.)
Yangban: Is that you Pune? Come girl. Come and massage my back.
(Pune goes to Yangban and starts massaging his shoulders.)
Yangban: Choraengi, Pune here well knows, there is no family around here to match mine.
Sonbi: That may be true, sir, but I have mastered the Chinese classics. Come Pune massage my arms. There's a good girl.
(Pune flits between the two men, massaging their arms and shoulders seductively.)
Choraengi: Sonbi, I have mastered more of the Chinese classics than you have.
(Yangban looks disgusted.)
Yangban: Really, I have heard it all. How could a peasant like you know the Chinese classics?
Sonbi: Whatever next?
Yangban: Sonbi, it is no use arguing in front of these Philistines.
Sonbi: I agree with you, sir. There is no point.
Yangban: Let's dance together instead.
(They dance around, Halmi appears and tries to join in. Sonbi looks at her face and pushes her away. Yangban frowns at her and does the same. Pune dances with Yangban and Sonbi, Halmi joins Choraengi and dances with him.)
(The scene is the wedding ceremony and the first night. Kakshi and the groom, played by Sonbi, enter. They face one another with a table in between them. Kakshi makes a ceremonial bow all the way to the floor twice and the groom does it once. After the ceremony, the couple lie down on a straw mat together and the lights dim.)
Image: Adam Nicholson
Activity 4: Reflection
To conclude this learning sequence, you will reflect on the Hahoe mask drama and use a thinking routine to consider how effective mask drama and satire are for making social and political comment both in the past and in today's world.
Answer these questions and then discuss your reflections as a group:
• What did you see and hear when you watched the Hahoe mask drama performance?
• What do you think about the performance and what it aims to do?
• What does it make you think about the effectiveness of using mask dramas to make social and political comment both in the past and in the world we live in today?
This learning sequence provides teachers with the opportunity to discuss with students the concept of traditional or folk drama and its relevance in today's world.
Activity 1: Korea and the Hahoe Pyolsin-kut mask drama
There are a number of key points that should be shared with students about this topic. Mask dance dramas are performed all over Korea and the themes are similar. The plays are derived from shamanic religious rites to ward off evil spirits and to provide an abundant harvest. They are written as short acts or vignettes and are satirical, using humour to allow the common people to release frustrations about the upper class.
Hahoe Pyolsin-kut mask drama
The Hahoe mask drama, or Hahoe Pyolshin-Gut T'al-NORI, is performed in a South Korean village called Andong. Andong is considered the cradle of Korean traditional culture from the historical times of the Silla, Koryo and Choson kingdoms.
The South Korean government recognises Hahoe Village in Andong as a unique historical area with architecture and customs that must be preserved. The area is given the title Important Intangible Cultural Properties No. 69 and the play, Important Folklore Material Number 122.
The village is the home of Songju, a shamanic god responsible for protecting one's house, and the home of Confucian culture, including Tosan Sowon, the Confucian Academy that has published more literary works than any other place in Korea.
The first plays were performed by merchants in Andong Hahoe Village around the mid-12th century and were performed to bring about happiness and a good harvest for the village. In an agricultural society, a good harvest was considered to be the key factor of the village's survival and the villagers performed a sacrificial rite to pray to the heavens for an everlasting and bountiful harvest.
Refer to further notes about the Hahoe Pyolsin-kut mask drama, contained within the text.
Activity 2: Hahoe Pyolsin-kut masks
The play's script has suggestive elements and it is recommended that teachers make sure it is suitable for their students. It is important to explain the context of the drama and the cultural background to the humour used.
If performed, students should be informed that all the characters in the mask drama move about in natural rhythm, walking and moving realistically, but use their voice to highlight the humour. Refer to notes about Hahoe masks, contained within the text, for information about the characters.
Activity 3: Create a satirical performance
It is important to remind students that they need to be sensitive when creating their characters and writing their plays.
The mask dance is made up of ten episodes exploring a satirical story of former noblemen.
The play covers each of these episodes and was written after the author witnessed a performance while on an Australia-Korea Foundation Fellowship.
If you wish to show a Hahoe mask drama, explore websites such as YouTubefor example, Hahoe mask dance drama of Korea's most traditional folk plays.
Teachers should check each of the plays regarding their appropriateness prior to them being developed and performed.
Refer to the notes about a Hahoe play, contained within the text.
Activity 4: Reflection
It is important that students have the opportunity to reflect on and discuss the effectiveness of mask drama and satire for making political comment.
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<urn:uuid:e4d62924-2c5d-43ff-88ad-4412dc18b79f>
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{
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"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.9375,
"fasttext_score": 0.3749765157699585,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9404591917991638,
"url": "https://www.asiaeducation.edu.au/curriculum/the-arts/details/hahoe-pyolsin-kut-mask-drama"
}
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Mega syncline in Oman
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An arch which opens upwards in a ‘u’ shape is called a syncline. Here Wadi Al Mayh flows directly across a huge syncline formed in limestone. The Permian limestone was deposited as horizontal sedimentary layers on the sea floor around 250 million years ago. The limestone layers were later buckled into a syncline following huge pressure from the North East as a result of the Oman ophiolite mountain building, and uplifting of the Arabian plate.
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<urn:uuid:b4620b09-6505-4ea0-ade1-d3a5a2263146>
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"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.59375,
"fasttext_score": 0.10446673631668091,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9607332348823547,
"url": "https://www.memphistours.com/Oman/Oman-Travel-Guide/Muscat-Geosites/wiki/Mega-syncline"
}
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Histiaeus and Steganography
Steganography is the act of hiding messages, so that no one but the person it is for knows a message is even there to be read. Today messages can be hidden digitally, for example in digital pictures and music, but the idea of Steganography dates back to the Ancient Greeks.
The earliest know use of steganography was by the Greek Despot, Histiaeus. He ruled an area of Iona (part of modern Turkey) called Miletus, but for the Persian King of Kings, Darius the Great. As a result of his wisdom and loyalty to Darius in previous battles, Histiaeus left Iona to become Darius’ personal advisor. While away he left his own kingdom in the control of his nephew Asistagoras. However, rather than stay loyal to Darius, he actually plotted to overthrow the Persian’s in Iona as he wanted to become overall King of Miletus, himself.
Histiaeus’ plan was to get his nephew Asistagoras to do the dirty work and rise up against the Persians in Iona, while he was with Darius. He needed to send a message to tell him to do this, without any risk of it being read by those loyal to Darius. To do this he used the head of a slave!
He shaved the slave’s hair off, tattooed a message on his bald head and then let the hair grow back. Once the message was hidden, the slave travelled back to Miletus where he shaved his head again, allowing Asistagoras to read the message that told him to revolt against the Persians. Once the revolt started, Histiaeus persuaded Darius to let him return there supposedly to take back control form his errant nephew.
However, while Darius trusted him, others suspected Histiaeus was actually behind the plot. Ultimately, he was captured in battle by a Persian general, loyal to Darius. The city of Miletus was ultimately destroyed too. As the general was worried Darius might pardon Histiaeus, he beheaded him on the spot. His head was sent to Darius, this time a head being used as a very open message to say that Histiaeus was both a traitor and dead. Darius still refused to believe he had been betrayed by his friend, however.
It may have led to a grisly end, but, the steganography had at least worked to keep the original message secret.
Read more about Steganography and how it can be done in the digital age [CS4FN]
Ancient Greek Computer Science
Computer Science and History
This work was supported by the Institute of Coding, which is supported by the Office for Students (OfS).
IoC logo on white
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<urn:uuid:d6803c2a-c864-4ac3-8c65-ba423e9856a2>
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"edu_score": 3.640625,
"fasttext_score": 0.1946997046470642,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9758803844451904,
"url": "https://teachinglondoncomputing.org/histiaeus/"
}
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Boost C++ Libraries Home Libraries People FAQ More
Introduction and motivation
In its most simple form a Range Algorithm (or range-based algorithm) is simply an iterator-based algorithm where the two iterator arguments have been replaced by one range argument. For example, we may write
#include <boost/range/algorithm.hpp>
#include <vector>
std::vector<int> vec = ...;
instead of
However, the return type of range algorithms is almost always different from that of existing iterator-based algorithms.
One group of algorithms, like boost::sort(), will simply return the same range so that we can continue to pass the range around and/or further modify it. Because of this we may write
to first sort the range and then run unique() on the sorted range.
Algorithms like boost::unique() fall into another group of algorithms that return (potentially) narrowed views of the original range. By default boost::unique(rng) returns the range [boost::begin(rng), found) where found denotes the iterator returned by std::unique(boost::begin(rng), boost::end(rng))
Therefore exactly the unique values can be copied by writing
Algorithms like boost::unique usually return the same range: [boost::begin(rng), found). However, this behaviour may be changed by supplying the algorithms with a template argument:
returns a single iterator like std::unique
returns the range [boost::begin(rng), found) (this is the default)
returns the range [boost::begin(rng), boost::next(found))
returns the range [found, boost::end(rng))
returns the range [boost::next(found),boost::end(rng))
returns the entire original range.
This functionality has the following advantages:
1. it allows for seamless functional-style programming where you do not need to use named local variables to store intermediate results
2. it is very safe because the algorithm can verify out-of-bounds conditions and handle tricky conditions that lead to empty ranges
For example, consider how easy we may erase the duplicates in a sorted container:
boost::erase(vec, boost::unique<boost::return_found_end>(boost::sort(vec)));
Notice the use of boost::return_found_end. What if we wanted to erase all the duplicates except one of them? In old-fashined STL-programming we might write
// assume 'vec' is already sorted
std::vector<int>::iterator i = std::unique(vec.begin(), vec.end());
// remember this check or you get into problems
if (i != vec.end())
vec.erase(i, vec.end());
The same task may be accomplished simply with
boost::erase(vec, boost::unique<boost::return_next_end>(vec));
and there is no need to worry about generating an invalid range. Furthermore, if the container is complex, calling vec.end() several times will be more expensive than using a range algorithm.
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<urn:uuid:d3f99d49-259f-4416-83f2-4b5b1d59aab0>
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"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.625,
"fasttext_score": 0.4540408253669739,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.7271395325660706,
"url": "https://www.boost.org/doc/libs/1_55_0/libs/range/doc/html/range/reference/algorithms/introduction.html"
}
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Business and Labor
Mashpee Teen James Mye Ends Slavery for Indian Children
James Mye, a poor Indian boy, was apprenticed to a Nantucket couple whose children treated him like a slave.
James Mye, Jr.
James Mye, Jr.
The commonwealth never passed a law making slavery illegal until it ratified the Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution in 1865. Slavery instead was slowly abolished by the courts, starting with the 1781 court case that freed Elizabeth Freeman from bondage.
Since the Pequot War, people in Massachusetts sent captured Indians to the West Indies in exchange for African slaves. Some people simply treated Indian children as slaves, believing they could buy and sell their labor.
Mashpee Indians
Before English settlers arrived, the Mashpee Indians numbered in the thousands and lived throughout southern New England and eastern Long Island. They were a branch of the Wampanoag Indian people, converted to Christianity by the Puritans. Disease wiped out all but about 60 families in Barnstable Country on Cape Cod. They survived largely through intermarriage with free or escaped Africans.
They made their living selling wild fruit, clams and brooms, but many fell into debt bondage. Their creditors pushed them further into debt by plying them with liquor.
In 1789, Massachusetts passed a law giving a board of overseers control of the Mashpee Wampanoag Indians.
Guardians, who reported to the board of overseers, could bind out poor Mashpee minors as apprentices.
The Mashpee Indians on Thanksgiving, 1929. Photo courtesy Boston Public Library, Leslie Jones Collection.
James Mye
James Mye was born in 1783 to an African-American father named Newport or Levi Mye. His mother was Sarah Soncansin, a Wampanoag.
On June 21, 1793, the guardians of the Mashpee Indians in Barnstable County bound the 10-year-old boy as an apprentice to Joshua Hall for 10 years until his 21st birthday. Hall died, leaving Mye to his two sons, Stephen and Joshua.
In 1801, Stephen and Joshua agreed to send James Mye as a cabin boy on a sealing voyage aboard the Trial for 1/100th of the ship’s profits. The ship captain was Thomas Coffin, father of abolitionist Lucretia Mott. Coffin and his partners told the Hall brothers they would kill seals in the Pacific Ocean, sell their skins in Canton, then return to Nantucket.
The ship set sail in April 1801 and sold sealskins in the China trade as planned. But instead of returning to Nantucket, the Trial sailed to South America with goods banned by the Spanish king. The ship landed in Valparaiso on July 1802 and was seized by the Spanish. Eventually the crew returned to the United States, but without any bounty from the voyage.
Stephen and Joshua Hall sued Coffin and his partners for $200 for taking James Mye under false pretenses. They won their case in Common Pleas court. They said they were deprived of the profit from 1/100th part of the skins and lost ‘time, labor and service’ of James Mye.
The Court Case
The court of Common Pleas ruled against the ship’s partners, who appealed to the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court.
The three-man Supreme Judicial Court ruled in October 1804 the Halls couldn’t inherit an indenture as if it were personal property.
Justice Simeon Strong wrote that even if Mye were the Halls’ apprentice, they had no ‘right to send him to the south-pole, to the end of the globe, in their service.’ The judges said the guardians might have had the right to send him on the voyage if navigation instruction was part of the agreement.
The case was important because the judges objected to the idea that a person’s labor could be owned by another. It was an early precedent in court rulings that moved the United States away from apprenticeships and indentures.
James Mye’s children worked as mariners and carpenters on Cape Cod and bought property. By 1844, Mye’s son James could show his prosperity by buying a daguerrotype of himself wearing a top hat, frock coat and tie.
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<urn:uuid:c9c9cb38-5dc0-4245-84ba-d1a571a398e5>
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{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.65625,
"fasttext_score": 0.033975958824157715,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9665310382843018,
"url": "https://www.newenglandhistoricalsociety.com/mashpee-teen-james-mye-ends-slavery-indian-children/"
}
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1. focus, focusing, focussing, focal point, direction, centering, concentration, engrossment, absorption, immersion
2. focus, distinctness, sharpness
3. focus, clarity, lucidity, lucidness, pellucidity, clearness, limpidity
4. focus, focal point, nidus, point
usage: a central point or locus of an infection in an organism; "the focus of infection"
5. stress, focus, emphasis, accent
usage: special emphasis attached to something; "the stress was more on accuracy than on speed"
6. focus, focal point, point
usage: a point of convergence of light (or other radiation) or a point from which it diverges
7. focus, point
usage: a fixed reference point on the concave side of a conic section
1. concentrate, focus, center, centre, pore, rivet, think, cogitate, cerebrate
2. focus, sharpen
usage: cause to converge on or toward a central point; "Focus the light on this image"
3. concenter, concentre, focalize, focalise, focus, align, aline, line up, adjust
usage: bring into focus or alignment; to converge or cause to converge; of ideas or emotions
4. focus, focalize, focalise, adjust, conform, adapt
usage: become focussed or come into focus; "The light focused"
5. focus, focalize, focalise, sharpen, adjust, set, correct
usage: put (an image) into focus; "Please focus the image; we cannot enjoy the movie"
WordNet 3.0 Copyright © 2006 by Princeton University.
All rights reserved.
See also: focus (Dictionary)
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<urn:uuid:0e8aa598-279c-4e98-8461-b8d3ff3dffe5>
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{
"dataset": "HuggingFaceTB/dclm-edu",
"edu_int_score": 4,
"edu_score": 3.609375,
"fasttext_score": 0.7675018906593323,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9007011651992798,
"url": "https://www.factmonster.com/thesaurus/focus"
}
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Definitions for "Joining"
The process of putting together mitered sticks of moulding to make the frame. Joining requires applying glue to each corner, carefully placing the segments in the vise or joining machine, and then attaching the corners. If placed in a vise, the corners can be nailed by hand. If placed in a power joiner such as an underpinner, the segments will be held together by staples or wedges inserted by the machine from underneath. The nails are important because they hold the corner together firmly until the glue dries. However, glue is most important to provide a strong joint that will not separate easily.
The juncture of two separate plaster applications usually within a single surface plane; also called a Jointing.
(v) The bringing together of two or more parts of an assembly in such a way as to overcome the natural forces that would separate them. Joining can be done with mechanical fasteners, adhesives, etc., and can be either temporary or permanent.
Teleporting to the same location as somebody chosen from Contacts list
Keywords: partnership, becoming, people, two, one
a partnership, not two people becoming one
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<urn:uuid:298fb8f8-dbaf-4921-96bd-9ca695193e8f>
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"edu_score": 3.5625,
"fasttext_score": 0.26622873544692993,
"language": "en",
"language_score": 0.9477534890174866,
"url": "http://www.metaglossary.com/define/joining"
}
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Common Structures of Bias
Malcolm Barrett
A quick note on terminology: I use the terms confounding and selection bias below, the terms of choice in epidemiology. The terms, however, depend on the field. In some fields, confounding is referred to as omitted variable bias or selection bias. Selection bias also sometimes refers to variable selection bias, a related issue that refers to misspecified models.
# set theme of all DAGs to `theme_dag()`
In addition to helping identify causal effects, the consistency of directed acyclic graphs (DAGs) is very useful in thinking about different forms of bias. Often, many seemingly unrelated types of bias take the same form in a DAG. Methodological issues in a study often reduce to a problem of 1) not adequately blocking a back-door path or 2) selecting on some variable that turns out to be a collider.
Confounders and confounding
Classical confounding is simple. A confounder is associated with both the exposure and the outcome. Let’s consider a classic example: coffee, smoking, and cancer. Smoking is a risk factor for a number of cancers, and people who drink coffee are more likely to smoke. Coffee doesn’t actually cause lung cancer, but they are d-connected through smoking, so they will appear to be associated:
confounder_triangle(x = "Coffee", y = "Lung Cancer", z = "Smoking") %>%
ggdag_dconnected(text = FALSE, use_labels = "label")
But if you think about it, this DAG is incorrect. Smoking doesn’t cause coffee drinking; something else, say a predilection towards addictive substances, causes a person to both smoke and drink coffee. Let’s say that we had a psychometric tool that accurately measures addictive behavior, so we can control for it. Now our DAG looks like this:
coffee_dag <- dagify(cancer ~ smoking,
smoking ~ addictive,
coffee ~ addictive,
exposure = "coffee",
outcome = "cancer",
labels = c("coffee" = "Coffee", "cancer" = "Lung Cancer",
"smoking" = "Smoking", "addictive" = "Addictive \nBehavior")) %>%
tidy_dagitty(layout = "tree")
ggdag(coffee_dag, text = FALSE, use_labels = "label")
Which one is the confounder, addictive behavior or smoking? Only one or the other needs to be controlled for to block the path:
ggdag_adjustment_set(coffee_dag, text = FALSE, use_labels = "label", shadow = TRUE)
Focusing on individual confounders, rather than confounding pathways, is a common error in thinking about adjusting our estimates. We should be more concerned blocking all confounding pathways than with including any particular variable along those pathways. (It’s worth noting, though, that when I say you only need one variable to block a path, that assumes you are measuring and modeling the variable correctly. If, for example, there is measurement error, controlling for that variable may still leave residual confounding, necessitating a more subtle level of control with other variables on the pathway; see the section on measurement error below. Moreover, it’s important to know that you expect to block the path on average; normal sampling issues, e.g. sample size, still come into play.)
Colliders, M-bias, and butterfly bias
Stratifying on a collider is a major culprit in systematic bias. Controlling for a collider–a node where two or more arrow heads meet–induces an association between its parents, through which confounding can flow:
collider_triangle() %>%
ggdag_dseparated(controlling_for = "m")
Here, the example is fairly simple and easy to deal with: m is a child of x and y and just shouldn’t be adjusted for. It can get more complicated, though, when m is something that seems like it is a confounder or when it represents a variable that contributes to whether or not a person enters the study. Often this takes the form of M-shaped bias, or M-bias. Let’s consider an example from Modern Epidemiology: the association between education and diabetes. Let’s assume that lack of education isn’t a direct cause of diabetes. When we are putting together our analysis, we ask: should we adjust for the participant’s mother’s history of diabetes? It’s linked to education via income and to participant’s diabetes status via genetic risk, so it looks like this:
m_bias(x = "Education", y = "Diabetes", a = "Income during Childhood",
b = "Genetic Risk \nfor Diabetes", m = "Mother's Diabetes") %>%
ggdag(use_labels = "label")
From a classical confounding perspective, it seems like the mother’s diabetes status might be a confounder: it’s associated with both the exposure and outcome, and it’s not a descendant of either. However, the association with the outcome and exposure is not direct for either; it’s due to confounding by genetic risk and childhood income, respectively. Drawing it as a DAG makes it clear that the mother’s diabetes status is a collider, and adjusting for it will induce an association between genetic risk and childhood income, thus opening a back-door path from education to diabetes status:
m_bias(x = "Education", y = "Diabetes", a = "Income during \nChildhood",
ggdag_dseparated(controlling_for = "m", use_labels = "label")
Again, this is relatively easy–just don’t control for the collider. But what about when your study design already stratifies on m? Let’s consider an example where m represents having surgery. Let’s say we are conducting a study involving participants who had surgery due to back pain. We suspect that people who are ready to commit to physical therapy and changes in their daily life will have a greater decrease in pain after a year than those who aren’t. We’ve developed a psychometric tool that measures readiness for surgery, and we are going to look at the association between readiness and change in pain. The readiness scale depends on an underlying latent variable that is true readiness, which we are measuring with some error. Change in pain depends on baseline pain. Both underlying readiness and baseline pain are also predictive of whether or not someone has surgery. By definition, we are selecting on surgical status: we feel it’s unethical to withhold it and irresponsible to force all participants to have surgery. So, we can’t know how people who didn’t have surgery would react. Surgical status is inherently stratified for, because we’re only looking at people who have had it (note that from here on out, I’m not going to show the paths opened by adjusting for a collider, the default in ggdag, for clarity):
coords <- dagitty::coordinates(m_bias()) %>%
coords$name <- c("readiness", "pain", "surgery", "ready_tool", "pain_change")
surgical_dag <- dagify(ready_tool ~ readiness,
surgery ~ readiness + pain,
pain_change ~ ready_tool + pain,
exposure = "ready_tool",
outcome = "pain_change",
latent = "readiness",
labels = c(ready_tool = "Measured \nReadiness",
pain_change = "Change \nin Pain",
readiness = "Underlying \nReadiness",
pain = "Baseline \nPain",
surgery = "Surgical \nStatus"),
coords = coords2list(coords)) %>%
ggdag_adjust(surgical_dag, text = FALSE, use_labels = "label", collider_lines = FALSE)
We can’t unstratify by surgical status, so our best bet is to block the back-door path opened by stratifying on it. We can’t adjust for the latent variable (and, if we’re measuring it really well, the latent variable and the tool are one in the same), so all we can do is control for baseline pain. Note that, technically, surgical status is part of the adjustment set:
ggdag_adjustment_set(surgical_dag, text = FALSE, use_labels = "label", shadow = TRUE)
What about if a variable is both a collider and a cause of the exposure and outcome (a classical confounder)? This is an extension of M-bias sometimes called butterfly bias or bow-tie bias. The variable is a part of two paths: one that it’s blocking as a collider and a back-door path that is confounding the relationship between x and y. What to do?
ggdag_butterfly_bias(edge_type = "diagonal")
The strategy is basically the same as above; we need to control for m to block the back-door path, but that opens up a relationship between a and b, so we need to block that path, too.
ggdag_adjustment_set(butterfly_bias(), shadow = TRUE)
Adjusting for either set, {a, m} or {b, m}, will give allow us to estimate the causal effect of x on y.
Measurement error
Measurement error is the degree to which we mismeasure a variable, which can lead to bias in a number of ways. If the error is dependent on the exposure or the outcome, (e.g. we measure the exposure with less accuracy for a group without a disease than with it), it is called differential measurement error. If the error has nothing to do with the exposure or outcome, it’s called non-differential measurement error. Under most conditions, non-differential error will bias the estimate of effect towards the null. In this way, it’s at least predictable, but for small effects or inadequately powered studies, it can make a true effect disappear. If there is error in both the exposure and outcome, the errors themselves can also be associated, opening a back-door path between the exposure and outcome.
Let’s consider an example with non-differential error for the outcome and differential error for the exposure. One common situation where this can occur is recall bias. Let’s say we want to know if taking multivitamins in childhood helps protect against bladder cancer later in life.
# set coordinates
coords <- tibble::tribble(
~name, ~x, ~y,
"bladder_cancer", 1, 0,
"vitamins", 0, 0,
"diagnosed_bc", 1, 1,
"recalled_vits", 0, 1,
"bc_error", 1, 2,
"vits_error", 0, 2,
bladder_dag <- dagify(diagnosed_bc ~ bc_error + bladder_cancer,
recalled_vits ~ vitamins + vits_error,
vits_error ~ bladder_cancer,
labels = c(bladder_cancer = "Bladder Cancer",
vitamins = "Childhood Vitamin \nIntake",
diagnosed_bc = "Diagnosed \nBladder Cancer",
recalled_vits = "Memory of \nTaking Vitamins",
bc_error = "Measurement Error, \nDiagnosis",
vits_error = "Measurement Error, \nVitamins"),
coords = coords)
ggdag(bladder_dag, text = FALSE, use_labels = "label")
For the outcome, the bias only depends on how well diagnosis of bladder cancer represents actually having bladder cancer. For the exposure, however, it also depends on if you have cancer or not: people who are sick tend to spend more time reflecting on what could have caused the illness. Thus, they will remember the vitamins they took as children, on average, a little better than controls. If there is no effect of vitamins on bladder cancer, this dependency will make it seem as if vitamins are a risk for bladder cancer. If it is, in fact, protective, recall bias can reduce or even reverse the association.
Measurement error can also cause bias in longitudinal settings. Let’s consider another example from Modern Epidemiology, which uses the Centers for Epidemiologic Studies–Depression (CES-D) scale, a common tool to assess depression that is known to have measurement error. In this example, the question is if graduating from college with an honors degree affects how depression changes after graduation. Assuming it doesn’t, adjusting for baseline CES-D score–a common practice–can induce bias via measurement error:
# set coordinates
coords <- tibble::tribble(
~name, ~x, ~y,
"honors", 1, 3,
"depression", 2, 3,
"cesd", 2, 2,
"baseline_error", 2, 1,
"depression_change", 3, 3,
"cesd_change", 3, 2,
"followup_error", 3, 1
cesd_dag <- dagify(depression ~ honors,
cesd ~ depression + baseline_error,
cesd_change ~ depression_change + followup_error + baseline_error,
labels = c(honors = "Honors Degree",
depression = "Depression",
cesd = "CES-D",
cesd_change = "Change \nin CES-D",
depression_change = "Change in \nDepression",
baseline_error = "Measurement Error, \nBaseline",
followup_error = "Measurement Error, \nFollow-up"),
coords = coords)
cesd_dag %>%
ggdag_dconnected(from = "honors", to = "cesd_change", controlling_for = "cesd",
Because both the baseline score and the change are due, in part, to measurement error at baseline, controlling for baseline CES-D score (a collider) causes change in CES-D and receiving an honors degree to be d-connected.
Selection bias
We have already seen a few examples of selection bias, but let’s consider a couple more that are potential pitfalls in common design types. Let’s say we’re doing a case-control study and want to assess the effect of smoking on glioma, a type of brain cancer. We have a group of glioma patients at a hospital and want to compare them to a group of controls, so we pick people in the hospital with a broken bone, since that seems to have nothing to do with brain cancer. However, perhaps there is some unknown confounding between smoking and being in the hospital with a broken bone, like being prone to reckless behavior. In the normal population, there is no causal effect of smoking on glioma, but in our case, we’re selecting on people who have been hospitalized, which opens up a back-door path:
coords <- tibble::tribble(
~name, ~x, ~y,
"glioma", 1, 2,
"hospitalized", 2, 3,
"broken_bone", 3, 2,
"reckless", 4, 1,
"smoking", 5, 2
dagify(hospitalized ~ broken_bone + glioma,
broken_bone ~ reckless,
smoking ~ reckless,
labels = c(hospitalized = "Hospitalization",
broken_bone = "Broken Bone",
glioma = "Glioma",
reckless = "Reckless \nBehavior",
smoking = "Smoking"),
coords = coords) %>%
ggdag_dconnected("glioma", "smoking", controlling_for = "hospitalized",
Even though smoking doesn’t actually cause glioma, it will appear as if there is an association. Actually, in this case, it may make smoking appear to be protective against glioma, since controls are more likely to be smokers.
Let’s also consider how bias arises in loss-to-follow-up. In a randomized clinical trial or cohort study, the main threat of selection bias is not through who enters the study (although that may affect generalizability) but who leaves it. If loss-to-follow-up is associated with the exposure or outcome, the relationship between the two may be biased. Let’s consider a trial where we are testing a new HIV drug and its effect on CD4 white blood cell count. If the treatment causes symptoms, participants may leave the trial. Similarly, there may be those whose HIV is getting worse and thus more symptomatic, which also may cause people to leave the trial. If we only have information on people who stay in the study, we are stratifying by follow-up status:
dagify(follow_up ~ symptoms,
symptoms ~ new_rx + dx_severity,
cd4 ~ dx_severity,
labels = c(
follow_up = "Follow-Up",
symptoms = "Symptoms",
new_rx = "New HIV Drug",
dx_severity = "Underyling \nHIV Severity",
cd4 = "CD4 Count"
)) %>%
ggdag_adjust("follow_up", layout = "mds", text = FALSE,
use_labels = "label", collider_lines = FALSE)
But follow-up is downstream from a collider, symptoms. Controlling for a downstream collider induces bias and, because we only have information on people who remain in the study, we are inadvertently stratifying on follow-up status (see the vignette introducing DAGs for more on downstream colliders). Thus, the effect estimate between the HIV drug and CD4 count will be biased.
Many, if not all, forms of systematic bias can be drawn as DAGs. Here are a few sources with interesting examples:
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"url": "http://cran.usthb.dz/web/packages/ggdag/vignettes/bias-structures.html"
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How do snails grow complex shells?
Photos courtesy of Wiley Online Library
Many marine snails produce breathtakingly beautiful shells, where pronounced shell sculpture — like rows of spines or broad flattened blades (called varices) — are aligned between one turn of the shell and the next. As a snail adds new shell at the aperture (the main opening of the shell) during growth, new varices are typically aligned with older varices to yield a surprisingly regular pattern. However, how snails control the placement of new sculpture when they grow, has long puzzled biologists.
University of Alberta researchers, Dr. Nicole Webster and Dr. Richard Palmer used manipulative experiments conducted at BMSC to test how new varices are positioned on the shell during growth of one of the most beautiful shells in the northeastern Pacific: the marine snail Ceratostoma foliatum. Varices were experimentally removed, or experimentally added at unexpected places on the shell, and the snails were then grown under controlled conditions to see how varix removal or re-positioning affected the placement of new varices during subsequent growth. Surprisingly, these experiments did not provide strong support for the widely-held hypothesis that physical contact with a pre-existing varix triggers production of a new varix during growth. Instead, the authors suggest that varix synchrony and spacing may arise from an intrinsic clock-like mechanism that can be further influenced by shell damage and repair. These are also experiments that can really only be done reliably at a research facility like BMSC, with an excellent running seawater system and ready access to the field for experimental animals and their natural prey (Photograph by N. Webster)
Webster, Nicole and A. Richard Palmer, 2019. How do gastropods grow synchronized shell sculpture? Effect of experimental varix manipulations on shell growth by Ceratostoma foliatum (Muricidae: Ocenebrinae). Invertebrate Biology 138:74–88.
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"url": "http://www.bamfieldmsc.com/recent-publications/how-do-snails-grow-complex-shells"
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1499 - 1400Germany
For some strange reason the myth continues that people in the Renaissance were dirty, slovenly people killed off by plagues because they never bathed. Nothing could be further from the truth in the Germanic part of the Holy Roman Empire, especially in the Imperial City of Nuremberg, were personal cleanliness was highly prized.
As a huge surprise to most was that in Nuremberg “bathing money” was a regular part of a person’s salary, paid weekly, usually on Saturday. Workers got to leave work early to go to the baths, where the prices were kept low by the government so everyone could attend and be clean.
Professional bath attendants, whose apprenticeship was three years long, followed by seven years of journeyman ship, were trained in the techniques of sanitary and medicinal bathing, as well as hair cutting, depilation (the fashion for men in Nuremberg was no beards), and simple bloodletting. Health inspections were performed on a continual basis. The water was drawn from the local rivers running through the City (although most of that water was filthy!) through wooden pipes, then heated over wooden fires.
Nuremberg had 14 licensed baths. If one paid for the full treatment, it was an elaborate ritual. First a trumpet sounded or a bell was rung to signal the water was hot. Once inside and stripped of clothing, the feet were washed, then the body was scoured and slapped with a sheaf of twigs, next came steam bathing and rubbing to induce perspiration, swatting the skin with wet rags, scratching (for the pleasure of it; employees were required to provide this service), hair washing and cutting, combing, lavendering, bloodletting, and finally a nap.
Photo and reference:
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"url": "https://www.wiki.sanitarc.si/1496-bathing-common-prohibited-nuremberg/"
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The Moment of Parallel Emancipations in Jamaica
Stanley Mirvis
Thirteen years ago, Yale’s Center for British Art, in collaboration with the Institute of Jamaica Museum, commemorated the bicentennial of the abolition of the slave trade with an exhibition focused on the 1834 emancipation of slaves. The exhibit centered on the work of the Jamaican artist Isaac Mendes Belisario (1795–1849). Belisario’s lithographs and watercolors, especially his 1837 Sketches of Character, which depict people of color participating in vibrant masquerade scenes, were likely intended as a celebration of Black creole culture. These lithographs would later help inform a distinct postcolonial Jamaican identity in the mid-twentieth century, making Belisario an inseparable part of Jamaican national heritage to this very day.
Belisario was also a Portuguese Jew. The artist was the scion of two Portuguese Jamaican Jewish families who profiteered on the exploitation of the enslaved. But when Belisario set out to preserve Black creole culture for posterity in 1837, his own people, the Jews of Jamaica, had only just achieved their own “emancipation”—as the process of political enfranchisement is referred to in Jewish Studies—by securing the right to vote in 1831. Jewish suffrage came directly on the heels of similar rights for free people of color and preceded the emancipation of slaves by only three years.
How is it that Belisario, a Jew, came to be so intrinsically woven into the fabric of Jamaican society and identity? And, how is it that the experiences of Jews and people of color had become so deeply enmeshed in Jamaica, while also being so very different?
Jewish communal life in English-ruled Jamaica began in the 1670s. Throughout the eighteenth century, the vast majority of Jewish settlers were Portuguese. Most were poor. They were the first, second, or third generation of former Iberian conversos—“New Christians” with Jewish ancestry—to openly identify as Jewish. Jamaica’s Portuguese Jews formed but a single node within a vast network of similar diasporic satellite communities throughout the Atlantic World, and beyond, sometimes referred to as the “Western Sephardic Diaspora.”
As part of this Diaspora that transcended state, imperial, and confessional borders, the Jews of Jamaica were entangled within multiple layers of political, communal, and religious authority. As part of an ethnically defined Portuguese Jewish Diaspora they looked to Amsterdam for religious patronage, as part of the English Empire they looked to London for political support, and as part of a colonial locality, they negotiated the divided political interests of the competing Jamaican Assembly and the crown-appointed Governor.
Like so many other immigrant and diasporic groups, Jewish alienation from their Jamaican host-land, despite the colony’s noteworthy ethnic and religious diversity, inspired aggressive lobbying efforts for greater social inclusion. Jews existed politically within Jamaica’s highly racialized social hierarchy on the same level—with the same civic disabilities—as free people of color: denied the right to vote, practice law, serve on juries, or join the militia officer corps.
In terms of civic status, Jews and free people of color had parallel experiences. In several instances, White Christian colonists even derogatorily described European-descendent Jews as Black or “Mulatto,” thus expressly equating the two groups. And, over the course of the eighteenth century, a growing number of people of color, both with and without Jewish ancestry, also identified as Jewish, complicating colonial attempts to neatly taxonomize the racial, religious, and ethnic divisions of the population. Furthermore, Jews and free people of color were both slave owners in their own right.
Like free people of color, Jewish social exclusion from White eighteenth-century Jamaican society ran deep. Jews were frequently targeted by hostile Christian merchants in antisemitic petitions to England. Between 1692 and 1740 the Jamaican Assembly required a discriminatory collective Jewish surtax. Jews were often wrongfully accused by White colonial elites of treasonous collaborations with the Spanish, the French, and autonomous Maroon communities. Anti-Jewish stereotypes, canards, and ethnographic polemics proliferated in late eighteenth-century periodicals and pamphlets. In 1783, a mob threatened to destroy the synagogue in Kingston on Yom Kippur along with the Jews congregated within.
Jews, like free people of color, vigorously campaigned for the amelioration of their status. They consistently, if futilely, lobbied the hostile Assembly to remove the discriminatory Jewish tax, initiating a dynamic trans-Atlantic lobbying campaign. In 1750, the Jamaican Jew Abraham Sanches Morao defiantly cast a vote for his representative to the Jamaican Assembly, a provocative gesture that sparked a swell of printed anti-Jewish sentiments on the island.
These self-determined efforts helped lay the groundwork for the hotly contested but ultimately successful campaign to secure Jewish suffrage in 1831—just six months after free people of color achieved the same rights. On the eve of the abolition of slavery, Jews and free people of color had just entered Jamaican civic society together. This shared cause manifested in the 1840s when many newly enfranchised Jewish voters and elected officials allied with propertied people of color against the entrenched interests of the White plantocracy.
Despite their political alliance, European-descendent Jews and people of color in Jamaica had a deep gulf of experiential difference between them. Although they both owned slaves, free people of color had not forgotten that they or their ancestors had once been owned, dehumanized, bequeathed, exploited, raped, and physically abused. Some of those owners were also Jews. But, of course, many of the newly enfranchised people of color in the 1830s identified as Jewish themselves.
Solidarity between Jews and people of color, along with all its ambiguities and contradictions, is perhaps most profoundly embodied in the art of Isaac Mendes Belisario, a Jewish voice of appreciation for Black creole culture expressed at the moment when both groups had begun to actualize their enfranchisement. Yet, Belisario was also the beneficiary of family wealth generated through oppression. It is suspected that his many landscapes depict a Jewish-owned plantation wherein hundreds of people were denied freedom and dignity. And, many parts of his Sketches of Character, an inherently racist genre, are essentializing and perpetuate discriminatory notions of racial difference. Belisario’s work, however, belongs to a historical moment defined by a sense of hope and shared cause—a moment of parallel emancipations.
Stanley Mirvis is an assistant professor of history in the School of Historical, Philosophical, and Religious Studies, and the Harold and Jean Grossman Chair of Jewish Studies, at Arizona State University.
Further Reading:
Featured Image: Photo of “Negro man in straw hat, standing, stripping cane” by William Berryman on Wikimedia Commons
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Spaniards Besiege Tenochtitlan
From Fray Bernardino de Sahagún, Florentine Codex, Book 12, Chapter 31 (Mexica)
Brigantines Destroy Tenochtitlan Fortress. Image From Fray Bernardino de Sahagún, The Florentine Codex (Mexica).
This image shows Spanish brigantines with cannon blasting away at the wall the Mexicas built to protect themselves from the Spaniards. The thirteen brigantines could hold horses men and cannons.
Make some observations about what is included in the image:
Who can you identify?
Where are they located in the image?
How are they dressed?
What kind of military action do you see?
What is the center of this image?
Ask yourself some questions about what you see in the image:
What is the story being told in this image?
How do you account for the differences in the various stories?
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"language_score": 0.9176915287971497,
"url": "https://www.historians.org/teaching-and-learning/teaching-resources-for-historians/teaching-and-learning-in-the-digital-age/the-history-of-the-americas/the-conquest-of-mexico/image-exercises/spaniards-besiege-tenochtitlan"
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Gangtok, the present-day capital of Sikkim, is perched on a ridge of the Middle Himalayan Range of the Eastern Himalaya Mountain. The name Gangtok, however, is an amalgam of two Sikkimese words, wherein Gang means ‘aptly enough’ and Tok meaning ‘hilltop’, it concertedly connotes ‘aptly enough hilltop’ . Further, the other literary meaning of Gangtok is a ‘hillock cut out to make flat land’.
It was established in 1642 by three Tibetan Lamas namely; Lha-tsun Nam-Kha Jig-med, Khathog Kuntu bZangpo and mNag-bDag Sem-pa Phun-tsong Ringzing by consecrating Phuntsog Namgyal as the first ruler of the dynasty with the title of chogyal at Yuksom . The origin and development of Gangtok is closely related and intertwined with the history and development of Sikkim, right from its inception as an independent kingdom in the distant past, being ruled by the Namgyal Dynasty for 333 years, to its merger with the Union of India, its function as the fourth capital of the kingdom and then as the capital of the newly formed 22nd state of India.
The social, economic and political conditions of Gangtok during the Namgyal Dynasty is significant in different aspects. Mainly, as various scholars have taken up the study of various aspects of the modern and colonial history of Gangtok and Sikkim, however, they all have overlooked the historical significance of Sikkim under the Namgyal Rulers. Furthermore, the principal and focal objective of the assignment itself is to examine and trace the evolution of the society, economy and the political conditions of Sikkim from pastoralism to agriculture, trade and commerce through a change in technology from the year 1640 to 1890.
This assignment, ” Gangtok Under The Namgyal Dynasty (1640-1890)”, is an attempt to reveal those facts which were unknown before and to bring to light the various social and economic reforms and changes in the society under the chogyals till the advent of the British administration. This work is further focused on possession of land holdings, taxation, income, wages, trade and commerce, agricultural system, educational system, religious structure, society, social stratification and social changes.
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When we regard historical evolution of political institutions as well as the administrative policy of a region, cognising and deciphering the significance of ethnicity, class and politics in the bona fide perspective is immensely crucial. as these are what have moulded the inter-ethnic relationships and have assisted in shaping the political institutions in the state. When we regarded objectively in terms of the historical antecedents, there exist three major communities; the Lepchas, the Bhutias and the Nepalese, which can be generally accepted as the three cardinal ethnic groups, which upon being coupled with the subjective self-ascribed awareness of separateness and recognition by others as a distinctive group, these are what mould the inter-ethnic relationships and have assisted in shaping the political institutions in the state, highlighting its impact on the different phases of history.
The history of political development in Gangtok may be divided into four phases:
(i)The Pre-Monarchy Era;
(ii) The Period of Theocratic-Monarchy;
(iii) The Feudal Era and,
(iv) The Dawn of Modernity.
(i) The Pre-Monarchy Era:
The history of the pre-monarchy era, in the absence of any written scripts and languages of the indigenous people, is of one which is shrouded in anonymity and obscurity. It is stated that the Lepchas, who were regarded as the aboriginal inhabitants, lived alongside the Limbus and Magar tribes much before the establishment of the Bhutia kingdom. In the Limbu tradition, all of these tribes, ruled by their tribal chiefs, were included in the Kirati stock.
The Lepchas had an administrative organization headed by a Lepcha ‘Turve’, that is, Punu (the King). After three more successors, however, due to the frequent encounters with the ‘Kirats'(Rias and Limbus), the Lepcha Kingship came to an end with Tubh Athak Punu as the last Lepcha chieftain. In the thirteenth century with his demise, a new era ushered in where the throne was usurped by the Tibetans. During this period, the Lepchas had developed legends about their ancestry to recognize places and objects marking the formative years of the cultural evolution of Lepchas. The ancient Lepcha book ‘Chunakh- Akhen’ gives the reference of Lepcha Punu back to 330 to 320 B.C.
According to the Lepcha mythology, after the usurpation of the throne by the Tibetans, the Lepcha animistic priests
“were tricked into bringing all their writings to the (Buddhist) Lamas, who mercilessly burnt the manuscript and poisoned them.”
They, then translated their own mythological works into Lepcha under the name of ‘Tashi sung’ (History of Tashi), which manifests the all-seeing, omniscient and omnipresent Lord. This portrays how the simple, native and animistic Lepchas were treated harshly by the proselytizing Lamas. With the establishment of Bhutia kingdom, the consecration of the first Bhutia ruler in 1642 and the Lepcha’s subservience along with the Bhutia’s dominance began to take a firm stance.
(ii) Theocratic Monarchy
At the dawn of the Bhutia migration, Gyabumsag, the ancestor of the first chogyal, came to Gangtok. He formed an alliance and a ‘friendship of blood brotherhood’ with the Lepcha chief The-Kong-Tek which is said to mark the beginning of the conversion of the Rong-folk to Buddhism under the influence of the Tibetans. At the advent of the Seventeenth Century, three celebrated Lamas belonging to Nyingmapa sect (Red-hat-sect) of the Tibetan Lamaism, who had to leave Tibet due to the reverberations of the conflict with the yellow hat sect, embarked upon the journey to meet at ‘Yaksam’ to decide upon the spiritual head, hence, consecrated Phuntsog Namgyal of Khe-Bhumsa’s dynasty to be the first Chogyal of Sikkim in 1642 AD and gave the title of Chos-r-Gyal (Dharma-raja or religious king),with both spiritual and temporal power.
The Dalai Lama recognized the first ruler as a canonized Buddhist saint and honoured him
“with a complimentary letter, recognizing him as the ruler of the sacred land, along with the
ceremonial gift of silken scarf bearing Dalai Lama’s seal, the mitre of the Guru Rimpoche,
the devil dagger , and the precious. sand image of Guru.”
Consequently, the newly established Bhutia kingdom got tied to Tibetan Theocracy and sought the protection and aid of Tibet in case of aggression.
A council called ‘Lho-men-tsong’ , was contrived by the chogyal to win the trust and confidence of the Kirati tribes and to maintain cordial inter-ethnic relations. He proclaimed in the meeting of the council that all the tribes; the Bhutias, the Membas (the Lepchas), and the Tsongs (the Limbus) are part of one family. However, the Magar chiefs did not come to terms with the Bhutias, and opted out of the council. Moreover, the cordial relations did not last that long. The kingdom faced many inter-tribal conflicts, raids and wars, though sporadically, during the reign of five successive rulers.
There was an attempt by the Limbus to revolt in 1752 but that was suppressed by the Bhutia ruler. Even during the Sikkim-Nepal war, the Lepchas, the Bhutias and the Limbus had their separate garrisons, which .were combined under Chutup and Deba Takaspo. During the period, the expansionist design of Gurkhas led to a series of raids of Sikkim, especially the· Tista ‘Valley and Terai, under the leadership of the Gurkha General Kazi Damodar Pandey.
(iii) Feudalism
With the arrival of the British in neighbouring India, Sikkim allied itself with them as they had a common enemy – the Gorkha Kingdom of Nepal. The infuriated Nepalese attacked Sikkim with vengeance, over-running most of the region including the Terai. This prompted the British East India Company to attack Nepal resulting in the Anglo-Nepalese War, which began in 1814. Treaties signed between British and Nepal – the Sugauli Treaty and Sikkim and British India – Treaty of Titalia, returned the territory annexed by the Nepalese to Sikkim in 1817. In the year 1853, the British annexed the Darjeeling district and Morang India. The invasion led to the Chogyal of Sikkim becoming a titular ruler under the directive of the British governor.
Another milestone in the history of Gangtok is the appointment of J .C. White in 1888 as first Political Officer with an aim to check the Tibetan influence and manage administrative mess. The Durbar was divided on the issues of settlement of Nepalese and helping British India in encouraging trade with Tibet. Hence, in course of time, J.C. White became the de-facto ruler of Sikkim. He structured the administration by appointing an Advisory Council to guide Thutob Namgyal, that consisted four Kazis, two Lamas and two ex-Dewans(ministers). Hence he took away most of the executive power from the ruler.
White felt the necessity to re-structure the country’s administration as
“chaos reigned everywhere. There was no revenue system … no court of justice, no police, no public works, no education for the younger generation”
“As the coffers were empty, the basis of taxation and revenue was established after five years of arduous task. The country was sparsely populated and to reclaim more land under cultivation, it was necessary to encourage immigration, which could be done by giving land on favourable terms to the Nepalese.”
Formalised by the convention signed with China in 1890, Sikkim became a British protectorate in the later decades of the 19th century. Sikkim was gradually granted more sovereignty over the next three decades, and then eventually became a member of the Chamber of Princes, the assembly representing the rulers of the Indian princely states, in 1922.
(iv) Dawn of Modernity
As India earned its independence on the 15th August 1947, the princely states were
also freed from the British hegemony. ‘A stand still agreement’ was signed between the
Sikkim Durbar and the Government of India on 27 February 1948, ensured the
continuity of “all arrangements, relations and administrative arrangements as to the
matter of common concern existing between the crown and the Sikkim state on
August 14, 1947”, till a new treaty was concluded. Sikkim also could not remain
isolated and unaffected by the breeze of freedom. The ideas of Indepeq.dence inspired
some educated and intelligent Sikkimese to do away the yoke of feudalism and to
bring the refreshing breeze of democracy in the political arena. Consequently, three
political parties ‘The Praja Sundharak Samaj’ at Gangtok (East), the ‘Praja Sammelan’ at Temi Tarku (South) and the ‘Praja Mandai’ at Chakhung (West) were formed.
These parties had no co-hensive action or goal. The common demand of abolition of land-lordism and establishment of popular government prepared the ground for the birth of the Sikkim State Congress’ with Tashi Tshering, the most respected leader of the time as the President on the December, 1947. Forwarding three demands of (a) abolition of land-lordism (b) formation of a popular interim government and (c) Sikkim’s merger with India, the party petitioned to the ruler for a drastic change in the political structure.
The Sikkimese society was formed by the assimilation of different stocks and races in different period of history. This process resulted in a number of social and economic systems either by adaptation or copying the system that prevailed in Sikkim, Tibet and Nepal. The Lepchas and the Limboos who were the original inhabitants of Sikkim had their own social system before the establishment of the Namgyal dynasty. The Bhutias came later, initially in small numbers, with the establishment of the Namgyal rule, in large number; with them came some of their social custom and norms. Some of these social customs the Bhutias abandoned in subsequent period, such as the social divisions which were prevalent in Tibetan society, the lowest strata of Tibetan society- ragyapbas and blacksmiths -were not found in Sikkim among the Bhutias. The Lepchas on the other hand, adopted some culture like -the Bhutias’ religion, Buddhism, and some of their social customs. In the subsequent period with the coming of different communities from Nepal the composition of the society further changed and the Nepalese population increased during the rule, and ultimately the Nepalese outnumbered the earlier populations. With their entry, their customs, terms and traditions entered Sikkim and gave rise to new systems in social and economic sphere. The system of adaptation and imitation continued and Sikkimese society developed a unique society where one gets the elements of the Lepchas, Limboos, Bhutias and the Nepalese. Thus, it can be said that formation of Sikkimese society and social system was the result of the assimilation and adaptation to suit the need of the people.
Thus the society of Sikkim was formed which composed of the communities of Lepchas, Limboos, Bhutias and the Nepalese. The Lepchas were nature worshippers who were converted to Buddhism by the Namgyal rulers with the help of lamas. The Limboos were originally followers of Buddhist faith and later a section of them adopted Hinduism after they came into contact with the Nepalese. Buddhism was the state religion as the Namgyals being the propagator and upholder of this faith. Thus the entry of Hinduism could not be prevented in Sikkim. In the last quarter of the nineteenth century Christianity too entered Sikkim through the activities of the Christian missionaries leading to the conversion of many Lepchas to it. A section of Nepalese too adopted this new faith owing to the activities carried by the missions in the field of education and health care.
The economy of Sikkim under the Namgyals depended on agriculture, forests and its produce for their daily needs. They practiced traditional method of farming and shifting cultivation. Sikkim was covered mostly by forests and its produce was utilized for firewood, timber, fodder, pastures and hunting. With the establishment of the Namgyal dynasty a few changes were noticed in the economy till the advent of the British. A system of land revenue was introduced and revenue was collected in kind. People could settle down on any uninhabited land and they were not measured. Trade and commerce existed and the barter system was in vogue. Due to limited economic resources Sikkim was referred as a poor kingdom by the first British Political Officer.
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Courtesy of the Horniman Museum, London(Top) Courtesy of the Horniman Museum, London; (bottom) photograph, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
The Jew’s harp is a musical instrument consisting of a thin wood or metal tongue fixed at one end to the base of a two-pronged frame. The player holds the frame to his mouth, which forms a resonance cavity, and plucks the instrument’s tongue. The tongue produces only one pitch. In 18th-century Europe virtuoso players used instruments with two or more tongues of different pitch, thus allowing a complete musical scale.
The Jew’s harp, which is also known as the jaw’s harp, or guimbarde, is widely distributed in Oceania, Asia, and Europe, where it was introduced from Asia by the 14th century. The characteristic European form, also found elsewhere, is a pear-shaped metal frame with a metal tongue affixed. Many non-European forms are narrow instruments cut from a single piece of bamboo or wood. In some cases the tongue is vibrated by jerks on a cord attached to its end.
The delicate, barely audible sound of the Jew’s harp led in Asia to its frequent association with contemplation. In 19th-century Austria it was used as an instrument for lover’s serenades.
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The destination for history
Black women of World War One
With only a few exceptions, such as the Crimean war ‘doctress’ Mary Seacole, black women have been ‘written out’ of British history. This is true of the many books published about Britain and the First World War and yet it is possible to uncover life stories from this ‘hidden history’.
During the Great War black and mixed-race women broke down barriers at a time when contact with them in British society was minimal. Importantly these women offered an alternative to the racial stereotyping at that time in literature, silent cinema, or on stage as bandanna-wearing mammies and other racial caricatures. For example, in music halls, the refinement of glamorous stars like Belle Davis and Cassie Walmer, militated against the stereotypical image of black women in Britain.
We may never find out the name of the nurse who was photographed at a soldier’s convalescent home in Surrey in 1915, but we know she existed in a profession that operated a ‘colour bar’ until the 1930s. We may never find out the identity of the happy, smiling face of the munitions factory worker in Bradford in 1917, but her appearance demonstrates that some black women successfully integrated into war work. Thanks to the Liverpool historian Ray Costello, we know that one of his mixed-race aunts was a seamstress who made caps and uniforms Liverpool’s Lybro Factory. He explains that the factory was owned by Quakers and was one of the few that would employ black women in Liverpool.
Black women from the working-classes were often forced into low-paid professions by taking such jobs as domestic servant or seamstress. When London-born Esther Bruce left school in the mid-1920s she experienced both. Exploited in domestic service, her Guyanese step-mother taught her to sew and this was the profession she remained in until she retired at the age of 74. In her memoir, published in 1991, she recalled her childhood in the Great War: “At school we made things for the troops and waved a Union Jack at soldiers marching along North End Road.” Esther also remembered a Zeppelin appearing in the sky at the end of their street, over West Kensington station. Fortunately, it did not drop any bombs.
Black women from the middle-classes fared better. The composers Amanda Ira Aldridge (who studied at the Royal College of Music) and Avril Coleridge-Taylor (who studied at the Trinity College of Music) forged their own paths, breaking down barriers in the male-dominated world of ‘serious’ (classical) music. The Jamaican-born Vera Manley won a Commonwealth scholarship and studied music in London before she became a music teacher in Britain. On an extended visit to Russia in 1916-17 to study music, she witnessed first-hand the Russian Revolution. In a letter to her family Vera gave a detailed eyewitness account of that terrifying event.
Kathleen Easmon, born in Sierra Leone, was brought to London as a young child by her widowed mother who wanted her to have an English education. Kathleen attended Notting Hill High School for girls before studying fashion design at South Kensington College from 1910-14. She then became an associate of the Royal College of Art. She remained in London during the war before returning to Sierra Leone in 1917.
In 1914, just before the outbreak of the Great War, the Trinidadian teacher Audrey Jeffers arrived in Britain to study social science in London. During the war, Audrey became involved with and served among the West African troops. She put her organisational skills to good use by forming a West African soldiers’ fund, collecting financial contributions from fellow West Indians in London.
Mabel Mercer came from humble beginnings in Staffordshire and trod the boards throughout the First World War in music halls. In the 1970s she gave a first-hand account of her experiences of those early, formative years in show business. By the 1970s she was one of America’s most influential cabaret artistes and Frank Sinatra said she taught him everything he knew about a lyric!
Not all black women were fortunate. In 1919, in Ealing, west London, Grace Ann Stevenson, a 38-year-old domestic servant who had left Jamaica in the Edwardian era, committed suicide. Isolated and unhappy, she couldn’t afford to return to her homeland. She left a suicide note: “I am a lonely broken-hearted girl, and I have no-one in England…I cannot face the world any longer; it is too hard.”
Grace Ann might have had a chance at surviving her ordeal had she contacted a black-led organisation like the League of Coloured Peoples, but that did not come into existence until 1931. In 1919, most black people who lived and worked in Britain would have had contact with other members of their community, whether in their families or as friends. Grace Ann had no one, and in desperation she took her own life. Though black settlers had been here since at least the 1500s, she could not have known that her death coincided with the beginnings of what we now know as Britain’s modern-day black community.
By Stephen Bourne
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LINR 2 | Lesson 3 | Explore Situation 1
Jamal has $400 to spend on a camping trip. He knows he will have to spend at least $15 a day on food and expenses.
What do you notice? What do you wonder?
Notice responses might include: (highlight to see)
• Jamal has $400 now
• Jamal will spend at least $15
• At the beginning of the 2nd day, he will have less than $385
• In 10 days, he will have less than $400-$150
• We don’t know how long he is going for.
Wonder responses might include:
• How much money will he have after 4 days
• How long before he has no more money?
• How much money will he have at any time during the trip?
• If he has $183, how long has he been on the trip?
Now answer all of the above wonder questions, as well as any that you thought of.
In particular let’s explore the following:
How can we mathematically represent the amount of money Jamal may have at any point in the trip. And, what are some other questions you could answer about this situation?
(Make sure to consider using all of the representations in your discussion (graph, rule, table).
Check solution here.
Go to Watch
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Porcupine Hair Roaches Worn at Powwows: From the Eastern Woodland Warriors to the Plains
Almost all tribes at one time had warrior societies. In those societies, the men who belonged to them wore specifically related clothing items. Those items were only allowed to be worn when the men were dealing with warrior society meetings, dances, and rituals. As time progressed, certain items of clothing lost its religious connections to the warrior societies, and everyone in the tribe started to wear them. One such item that has grown through cultural changes is the hair roach. Worn by many men on the powwow circuit, the hair roach is not just worn by members of warrior societies any longer. It is now a pan-Indian clothing item that is worn by hundreds of men in the contemporary prairie powwow culture.
Early Warriors Used the Roaches for War
The hair roach has origins in the Eastern Woodland tribes hundreds of years ago during pre-European contact. The first roaches were small, approximately the span of a hand, and round in shape. These were attached to the warriors head by the braid of their scalp lock. A scalp lock was a circular patch of long hair at the crown of the warriors head, which was usually braided. The rest of the hair was shaved or plucked out. The early roaches were made from many different types of animal fur (deer, wolf, porcupine, turkey beards), depending on the want and honors earned by the warrior. If earned, a socket made of bone would be added to the roach, where a plume would be tied on to decorate in times of war. As tribes began to barter with each other, the way of the roach spread from the East to the Plains areas tribes, with only the warriors allowed to be adorned in the roaches.
The Many Different Shapes and Sizes of Modern Hair Roaches
There are several sizes and shapes of the hair roach today. Some are still small and circular like the Woodland ones. Others are located on the head from the hair line to the base of the neck, considered medium sized. There are other roaches that start just behind the hair line and go halfway down the back, these are considered large sized. Some roaches that are worn by the Crow people will have extra long porcupine guard hair that will be flattened by a spreader. Today the roach can be worn several ways. One way is the old style mentioned above, but men need long hair, and small to medium roaches only. Another method would be to take strings that are connected to the roach, and tie them around the neck and under the chin. This way is the most common way, due to many men with short hair as well as for the roaches that are large and heavy. Another way is to attach a headband to a medium sized roach, and wear the combination like a hat.
Hair Roach Hardware
Many of the medium, large, and flatter roaches have spreaders located on the woven spine of the roaches. This spreader will keep the roach from curling on the dancers head, and it is where the sockets or rockers for the feathers are located. A simple spreader with one or two sockets can be worn by traditional dancers, straight dancers, grass dancers, and chicken dancers, and be made of metal, leather or bone. The rocker spreader is worn by the fancy dancers. With every movement of the head and every turn of the body, the rocker spreader will teeter-totter back and forth. This adds another dynamic of movement to the fancy dancers. The rocker can be made from silver, and the rocker is center balanced with the feathers attached. The more complex rocker is made from wires and a wooden block. This is all hooked together with a rubber band inside to add the rocking motion.
By the time the roach reached the Plains tribes, which was early to mid 1800’s, the men still believed that to wear a roach was to first earn it, as well as the feathers attached to the spreaders. Some Plains tribes call it the ‘Pawnee war bonnet‘. It is known that many of the warrior society customs of the Plains had been bought from the Pawnee and adapted by many tribes on the Plains. Where the Pawnee first learned the custom of using a roach is still unsure. But what can be seen, is the expansion and use of the hair roach to the pan-Indian powwow culture that is seen all over the United States today.
By | 2017-10-05T07:14:12+00:00 October 5th, 2017|Categories: hair|0 Comments
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hepta-, hept-
(Greek: seven; normally used as a prefix)
hebdomad (s) (noun), hebdomads (pl)
1. A group of seven or seven days: "The hebdomads are regular features of calendars around the world."
"Monday to Sunday or Sunday to Saturday are the sequences of days in a hebdomad."
2. Etymology: the number seven, from Late Latin hebdomas; which came from Greek hebdomos, "seventh"; from hepta, "seven".
hebdomadal (heb DAHM uh duhl) (adjective), more hebdomadal, most hebdomadal
Weekly: "Any hebdomadal activity takes place, appears, or is done every week."
"Janine always tried to make time to go regularly to the hebdomadal services at her local church."
hebdomadally (adverb) (not comparable)
A reference to a calendar week: "The family members of Bill and Lorna always tried to have a hebdomadally scheduled meal so all of them could be together."
heptachord (s) (noun), heptachords (pl)
1. A system of seven sounds: "Trudy sang a heptachord composition of seven chords or tones."
3. An ancient Greek stringed instrument: "In old Grecian times, a heptachord or a lyre with seven chords was used to present music."
heptachromic adjective) (not comparable)
1. A reference to that which exhibits seven colors: "A heptachromic spectrum presents the complete range of colors into which light can be separated when it passes through a prism."
2. Pertaining to the capability of seeing all seven colors of a spectrum: "Tamika had normal heptachromic color vision."
heptad (s) (noun), heptads (pl)
1. Numbers that have a total of seven: "The days of the week come in groups of heptads."
2. A group, or groups, of seven things: "Many mothers have a constant heptad of days as they take care of their children."
heptadactylia (s) (noun), heptadactylias (pl)
The presence of seven digits on the hands or the feet: "Floyd had an abnormal heptadactylia of fingers on his left hand while the other hand had a normal pentadactylia of fingers."
heptadactylism (s) (noun), heptadactylisms (pl)
Having seven digits on a hand or a foot: "When a person has heptadactylism, then he or she has seven fingers on one or both hands, instead of the normal five fingers on each hand; and seven toes, instead of the normal five toes on one foot or on both feet."
heptadactyly (adverb), more heptadactyly, most heptadactyly
A reference to the presence of seven digits on a hand or a foot; or on both hands and/or both feet: "The parents were shocked to see that their daughter, Fay, was heptadactyly born with so many toes on both of her feet."
heptagon (s) (noun), heptagons (pl)
A geometric shape with seven angles and seven sides: "The students were learning about heptagons in their math class."
heptagonal (adjective) (not comparable)
A reference to a formation that has seven sides and seven angles: "Kyle had a heptagonal bedroom in his apartment."
heptagynous (adjective) (not comparable)
Having seven pistils (seven female reproductive parts) of flowers: "Heptagynous blossoms have seven organs (pistils) that can receive pollen and produce fruits for plants."
heptahedron (s) (noun); heptahedrons, heptahedra (pl)
Pertaining to a solid figure with seven flat sides or faces and straight edges: "A heptahedron has several different forms; in fact, heptahedra have several shapes in convex (curving or bulging outward; such as, the exterior of a sphere) and concave (curved like the inner surface of a sphere)."
heptahydrate (s) (nouns), heptahydrates (pl)
A chemical compound that contains seven molecules of water: "Magnesium sulfate is one example of a heptahydrate."
heptamerous (adjective)
1. Plants that have flowers in groups of seven whorls or circles around stems: "There are heptamerous plant parts; such as, petals or sepals."
2. Having parts that are arranged in groups of seven: "There are some other heptamerous elements, all of which are divided into seven parts."
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Learn About the Police Badge
Kindergarten Seasons Activities: Learn About the Police Badge
What You Need:
• Cardstock or construction paper
• Black markers
• Printable police badge
• Kid-friendly scissors
• Hole puncher
• String or yarn
What You Do:
1. Do some research on the meaning of the police badge and the information on it. Find simple facts that you can explain to the students. For this part of the activity, the student can work with you during the research. The following are some suggested simple facts that can be explained to kindergarteners:
• Badges are a type of reward police officers receive after they complete their training.
• The badge is a type of symbol that lets people know the person is a police officer.
• When a police officer receives a badge, it means he or she has accepted to do their job of making sure people are safe and following rules.
• The badge has information to identify the officer, like an ID card.
• The badge has various information on it like, such as the city the officer works for and their badge number.
2. After you have done the research, ask the students what it is police officers do to keep us safe. During the discussion bring up the badge. Ask the students what kind of information they think is on the badge. Suggestion: Look on the Internet for images of police badges and compare differences amongst cities or states. You can look at badge shapes, symbols, etc.
3. Print out the police badge on the cardstock or construction paper, and help kids to cut it out.
4. Show them where to trace the word "police" and where to write their name on the badge. Then, have them colour in their badge. They can also add other information that may apply to police badges and related to the research.
5. Punch a hole on the top part of the badge and insert a string or yarn.
6. Now the badge is ready to wear!
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Marsh, George Perkins. [1864] 1965. Man and Nature. Reprint, edited by David Lowenthal, Cambridge, Mass.: The Belnap Press of Harvard University Press.
The main statement ‘George P. Kent’s article, Man and Nature, is that nature has a strong bond with a man than any other living things on earth, and however man the main is the prime reason for the deterioration of nature. In his article, Marsh has successfully documented the effects of human action; both positive and negative on nature.
Nature has gifted man with many gratuitous gifts, Marsh lists –the temperature of air, the rains, the land and water, the composition of soil, etc. as the examples while man has exploited the nature for the wealth and social advancement, as the result of which the vast forests have disappeared; the vegetable, the soil of alpine and the mold of the upland fields, are washed away; the meadows, the rivers, the willows, and the rivulets, are gone (8-9). He urged that even though man’s action, in the past carried the physical improvement to the highest pitch, eventually his action –either by ignorance or by brutal and exhausted despotism led to the degradation of the soil, climate and the land, as the result of which man is having to struggle against crushing oppression and the destructive forces of inorganic nature, both at a time (9-12).
Apart from the man’s action there are other influences such as cosmical and geological influences, geographical influence and meteoroidal influences which have impacts on nature in greater extent, he explains, man is one of the most significant factors influencing the nature because he can cut down the forest, change the course of river, influence all the natural phenomenon with the use of technology and finally push the nature into wilderness (17-28). “But man is an everywhere disturbing agent” (36). For instance, when the trees are cut, soil erosion occurs resulting in dryness and flooding, which in return results in heavy rainfall and hence disturbs the hydrological cycle.
“The ravages committed by man subvert the relations and destroy the balance which nature [has] established…, and she avenges herself upon the intruder by letting loose destructive energies hitherto kept in check by organic forces destined to be his best auxiliaries, but which he has unwisely dispersed and driven from the field of action” (42).
At the end of the chapter, he mentions that man has learned many practical lessons from the teachings of simple experience. Even many actions are implemented so as to improve the nature, such as plantation of new forests, constructing walls of masonry in flowing streams, filling up lowlands, diking, checking the drifting of coastal dunes, re-peopling the seas and island with fish, fertilizing the sand of Saraha, etc. (44). But still, the question is: could this old world, which man has overthrown, be rebuilt? (45).
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"url": "https://learnrsgis.com/marsh-george-perkins-1864-1965-man-and-nature-reprint-edited-by-david-lowenthal-cambridge-mass-the-belnap-press-of-harvard-university-press/"
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Shattered eggs reveal secrets of explosions
Blast size determines how many pieces are left behind.
The higher the pressure, the smaller the fragments. Credit: ©
Exploding eggs might help investigators work out the causes of industrial explosions or airline disasters, according to researchers who have been smashing egg-shells.
The distribution of sizes of fragments left after a blast can be used to work out the pressure of the explosion, say Ferenc Kun of the University of Debrecen in Hungary and his co-workers1.
The relationship between the size of the bits and the pressure holds true for any sealed shell, they say, from an egg to a gas tank or a plane. They suggest their work could be used by forensic scientists trying to work out the size of a bomb used to blow something up, or the cause of an explosion in a chemical plant.
The team worked out the relationship by smashing up hens' eggs. They emptied the eggs by blowing out the contents through a small hole, in the same way that a child might make an Easter egg, and filled the dry, empty shells with hydrogen gas.
Igniting the mix of hydrogen and air caused the eggs to explode. The whole thing was enclosed in a plastic bag, so that when the egg blew apart, the researchers could collect all the fragments and measure their sizes.
They found that as the explosive pressure increased, there were more fragments, but fewer large pieces.
Eggs catapulted on to the ground by rubber bands also broke into a predictable distribution of pieces, but generally there were fewer bits than after an explosion.
Breaking up
The mathematical equations that predict the number of pieces of each size can be described by something called a power law, the team reports in a paper on the physics website arXiv.
Other researchers have found similar power-law relationships for the fragments produced by shattering a pane of glass or breaking a solid object, such as a stone. But the numbers work out slightly differently for hollow shells, says Kun's colleague Hans Herrmann of the University of Stuttgart.
Herrmann speculates that their mathematical formula could also be used to figure out the size of fragments missing from broken archaeological vessels, provided that enough shards are found to map out the overall size distribution of the pieces.
The problem, Herrmann says, will be in gathering enough fragments to do any calculations. Debris in aircraft explosions can be scattered over kilometres, he says, and the smaller the fragments, the harder they are to find.
1. 1
Wittel, F., Kun, F., Herrmann, H. J. & Kröplin, B. H. Preprint, (2004).
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Ball, P. Shattered eggs reveal secrets of explosions. Nature (2004).
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ContentBlocks 8 1 Ads Shiloh Standard copy
Research Topics
A huge cache of clay seal impressions (known as bullae) was found at the ancient Hellenistic city of Maresha, located in the Bet Guvrin-Maresha National Park. Archaeologists recently discovered seven previously unknown rooms in the cave complex of Maresha, including one that had 1020 untouched clay seals lying on the floor amidst broken pottery. An initial study of 300 of the clay seals suggest they date primarily from the second century BC and may have been part of a private archive. The delicate, unfired bullae depict images of various gods, such as Apollo, Athena, and Aphrodite, as well as cornucopia, masks and animals. Only a few bore Greek letters and numbers, perhaps indicating dates; none of the seals in the initial survey had written inscriptions. The trove of seal impressions confirm that Maresha was a significant city in the Hellenistic world with major ties to the outside world.
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ABRT 28 | 8/1/2019
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"url": "https://biblearchaeology.org/current-events-list/4482-over-1000-clay-seals-discovered-in-central-israel"
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Instructors are like RNA
RNA, ribonucleic acid, is an essential intermediary in the process of gene expression. That is, a gene, which is composed of DNA, is first transcribed into a slightly different nucleotide “language,” that of RNA, before the code of the gene is translated into a functional protein.
image from:
RNA has a lot of really important functions that enable that translation to occur. RNA interprets the gene code. It provides a platform or scaffold upon which the translation occurs. It even serves as the catalyst for that translation.
We are like RNA. We interpret the code of our fields of specialization into meaningful language for our students. Our classrooms and assignments provide a scaffold upon which our students learn. Our enthusiasm for our fields catalyzes our students and eases their way to new knowledge.
Sure, our students can learn on their own. But, as catalysts, scaffolds and interpreters, we greatly enhance and speed up our student’s learning.
image from:
Like our RNA counterparts, we regulate the learning process for our students and monitor their progress. Because our students are many and varied, we need the flexibility of RNA to assist each individual on their journey.
I hope you are enjoying your semester thus far. I will be away for our fall break, but will post again in a couple of weeks.
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"url": "http://pages.vassar.edu/teachingtales/tag/teaching-stories/"
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USB hub
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
USB hubs such as this one are common.
USB is an international standard of technology for connecting peripherals to computers and other devices that support it. An interface where a USB device can be connected is called a port. A USB hub is a special device which allows adding more USB ports. The additional ports share one USB connection to the computer; for this reason, each of them cannot carry as much data as a direct USB connection can.
A hub may be bus-powered, which means it gets all its electrical power from the computer. This makes simple wiring, but it cannot give full power to its peripherals. A self powered hub has its own power cord, and can give full power to peripherals that need it.
There are different versions of the USB standard; main difference between the version is the maximum speed that is supported. The USB standard also defines different types of USB plugs.
A USB hub is a normal USB device, which was built for a given version of the standard. Certain models may support different versions of USB, while others may not. As an example: USB 3.0 can can transfer payload data at up to 4 GBits per second.USB 2.0 is limited to a transfer rate of 280 MBits per second. Connecting an USB 3.0 device to the computer using an USB 2.0 hub will limit the transfer rate to that of USB 2.0.
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"url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/USB_hub"
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Japan Data Archive
About Japan > Japanese Culture >
What is ikebana?
Ikebana, or Japanese traditional flower arrangement, was first stylized in the Muromachi period (1333-1568).
Prior to that, people were in the habit of offering arranged flowrers to Buddha.The concept of ikebana, therefore, developed into one that expresses something Buddhistic or divine.
It also embraces harmony with nature, symbolized by three well-balanced basic sprays signifing ten (heaven / universe), jin (mankind) and chi (earth).
Since World War II, howevever, modern schools of ikebana such as the Sogetsu school, which uses materials other than flowers, have appeared in an attempt to present this traditional flower arrangement as a kind of formative art.
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Clouds Over Sidra is a short VR film that is narrated by a 13-year-old Syrian refugee named Sidra who lives in the Za’atari refugee camp in Jordan. She and her family are among the 84,000 refugees living in the camp. The film, which was the first VR film produced for the United Nations, presents a day in Sadra’s life and was intended to raise awareness and financial support for Syrian refugees.
To watch the interactive film, navigate left and right, up and down, to get a 360-degree, or close to it, picture of what is going on in each scene.
• Allow students time to reflect on what they just saw. Consider using the see-feel-think-wonder routine to begin.
• There are many ways to explore the content of the film, you might choose one of our inquiry focused thinking-routines to deepen the discussion.
• Additionally, refer to our learning arc, ask students to review the questions and consider how the film relates to the questions.
• This film itself is a creation, it is a story told by someone, about someone, meant to reach a particular audience. Developing that awareness is important for practicing media literacy skills and perspective-taking. This routine is a helpful tool to structure that analysis.
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"url": "https://reimaginingmigration.org/clouds-over-sidra/"
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What is Tort ? What are it’s characteristics ?
The definition of Tort is not exhaustive . Many eminent authors have defined ‘Tort ‘ but a real exhaustive definition of a tort has yet to be found . ‘Tort ‘is a French word meaning wrong . The word ‘tort’ has actually been derived from the Latin term ‘tortum ‘ which means ‘to twist ‘or ‘wrongful.’ Salmond defined tort as a civil wrong for which the remedy is a common law action for unliquidated damages , and which is not exclusively the breach of a contract or breach of a trust or other merely equitable obligations . The definition given by Salmond has been adopted in different English cases as well as in section 2 of the Indian Limitation Act which defined tort as a civil wrong which is not exclusively the breach of a trust .
The five important characteristics of a tort are as follows :-
1) Civil wrong .
A tort is a civil wrong unlike crime , breach of contract or breach of trust .
2) Infringement of a right in rem .
Tort is an infringement of right in rem and not right in personam . A right in rem is a right which is available against the whole world . As for example , one’s right not to be assaulted or defamed is a right in rem .
3) Right fixed by law .
The right infringed in tort should not be a right based on consent of the parties but it should be a right fixed by law .
4) Common Law action .
The remedy available in tort should be a Common Law action . The Common Law action is also actionable in India .
5) Remedy .
Remedy of a tort should be damages or compensation in money . But the other remedies such as injunction , restitution of land , ejectment of trespasser are also available .
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The Siege of Antwerp
Parma’s bridge across the Scheldt at Antwerp
Over the next few years the Duke of Parma consolidated the line between the loyal south and the rebellious north, and set about reducing the northern strongholds by means of a long succession of sieges, a process that culminated in the thirteen-month-long Siege of Antwerp – one of the most fascinating operations of the Eighty Years War. Parma’s plans involved cutting the city off from the north by building a bridge across the Scheldt. To many this was the strategy of a lunatic. That a river half a mile wide could be bridged while there were so many rebels around to prevent its construction was one reason for the scepticism. The other reason was that some years previously, when Antwerp was still in Spanish hands, William the Silent had attempted to build a bridge, only to see his creation swept away with the coming of winter and the pounding of ice floes. Nevertheless, William remained one of the few people to take Parma’s threat seriously, and he proposed a drastic course of action to frustrate Parma’s plans.
William’s plan involved the almost total inundation of the area. Downstream from Antwerp, the Scheldt was confined within its banks by a complex system of dykes, the most important of which extended along its edges towards the sea in parallel lines. On the right bank this barrier became the mighty Blauwgaren dyke, which was met at right angles by the equally formidable Kowenstyn dyke. Not far from where they joined, the Dutch had a strong fortress called Lillo. If the Blauwgaren dyke was pierced, it would take the Kowenstyn dyke with it and would cause such an extensive flood that Antwerp would become a city with a harbour on the sea. It would then be almost impossible to starve out.
Had William the Silent’s orders been carried out immediately, then Antwerp might indeed have been safe, but a fateful and time-wasting debate took place, and just a few weeks later William was assassinated. The idea of a massive flood was certainly not well received. In an echo of Alkmaar, it was pointed out that twelve thousand head of cattle grazed upon the fields protected by the two dykes. If Parma was intent upon starving Antwerp’s citizens, then surely there was no better way of helping him than by the Dutch destroying such a huge food supply.
The tiny village of Kallo, which lay about nine miles from Antwerp, became the construction site for Parma’s bridge, but the scheme was such a huge undertaking that by the autumn of 1584 little seemed to have been achieved. Antwerp continued to be supplied by flotillas of craft, which exchanged fire with Parma’s forts as they boldly made their way upstream. The Antwerp authorities then made an astounding blunder. It transpired that grain bought in Holland could be sold for four times its original price in beleaguered Antwerp, a mark-up that was attractive enough to make Spanish cannon fire an acceptable hazard. But the city fathers then set a fixed price for supplies brought in, and simultaneously regulated the accumulation of grain in private warehouses. Seeing their profit wiped out, the ships’ captains stopped the traffic stone dead. Even Parma could not have created such an effective blockade!
At the same time, the inundation urged by William the Silent had actually begun, albeit in a much-reduced fashion. Yet, ironically, the opening of the sluices on the Flanders side actually made Parma’s communications that much easier, because the flooded countryside now enabled him to give Antwerp a wide berth. By the time it was finally decreed that the dykes of Blauwagaren and Kowenstyn should be cut there were strong Spanish garrisons in place to prevent this happening. The Kowenstyn in particular now resembled a long, bastioned city wall bristling with cannon and pikes.
Meanwhile, the bridge grew slowly. On the Flemish side a fort called Santa Maria was erected, while on the Brabant side opposite developed one named in honour of King Philip II of Spain. From each of these two points a framework of heavy timbers spread slowly towards the middle of the river. The roadway was twelve feet wide, defended by solid blockhouses. Numerous skirmishers attacked the workmen in order to prevent the two halves meeting, but skirmishes is all that these attacks were. In spite of entreaties from Antwerp the vacuum of power since the death of William the Silent prevented any concerted attack from occurring.
Parma was also suffering from a lack of money. His army had not been paid for two years, and he was not yet in a position to promise early payment from loot. A botched attempt by the rebels to capture s’Hertogenbosch, Parma’s main supply centre for the siege, served only to increase the commander’s determination to complete his bridge, against which the wintry weather was now providing the only real challenge. The ocean tides drove blocks of ice against the piers, which stood firm, but in the centre portion of the construction the current was too strong to allow pile-driving, so here the bridge had to be carried on the top of boats. There were thirty-two of them altogether, anchored and bound firmly to each other and armed with cannon.
Parma’s bridge was completed on 25 February 1585. It was twice as long as Julius Caesar’s celebrated Rhine bridge, and had been built under the most adverse weather conditions. As an added precaution, on each side of the bridge there was anchored a long heavy raft floating upon empty barrels, the constituent timbers lashed together and supported by ships’ masts, and protected with iron spikes that made the construction look like the front rank of a pike square. An entire army could both sit on the bridge and walk across it, and, to impress the citizens of Antwerp, Parma’s soldiers proceeded to do both.
So that they should be under no illusions as to the strength and size of the edifice, a captured Dutch spy, who expected to be hanged, was instead given a guided tour of the bridge and sent safely back to relate in wide-eyed wonder what he had seen. `Tell them further’, said Parma to the astonished secret agent, `that the siege will never be abandoned, and that this bridge will be my sepulchre or my pathway into Antwerp.’
The Dutch ship Fin de la Guerre (“End of War”) during the Siege of Antwerp in 1585.
The first marine application of mine warfare occurred in 1585 at the city of Antwerp. Fighting for their independence from Spain, the Dutch were under siege by Spanish forces, who had built a fortified bridge across the Scheldt River to prevent supplies from entering the city. Frederigo Gianibelli sent a small ship loaded with gunpowder down the river, with a time fuse. The ship detonated directly beneath the bridge, destroying it and the Spanish soldiers guarding it.
The Diabolical Machine
The besieged citizens of Antwerp, however, still possessed one possible winning card. In their city lived a sympathetic Italian engineer by the name of Frederigo Gianibelli, and in a similar display of enthusiasm to that with which Parma had built his bridge, so did this Gianibelli determine to destroy it using exploding ships. His proposal to the city authorities involved the construction of a fleet, but by the time his project was approved the parsimonious city fathers had reduced the fleet to two ships, which disgusted Gianibelli, even though each of the vessels, to be optimistically named Hope and Fortune, was enormous. The two ships were nothing less than artificial volcanoes. In the hold of each was a chamber of marble, along their entire length, built upon a brick foundation. This chamber was filled with gunpowder under a stone roof, on top of which was a `cone’ – also of marble – packed with millstones, cannonballs, lumps of stone, chain-shot, iron hooks, ploughshares and anything else that could be requisitioned in Antwerp to cause injury when blown up. On top of all of this were piles of wood that gave the vessels the appearance of conventional fireships. The one difference between the two ships lay in the means of ignition of the volcanoes within. On the Fortune this was to be done by means of a slow match. On the Hope the business would be done by clockwork and flint, rather like an enormous wheel-lock pistol. The progress of these infernal floating mines was to be preceded on the ebb tide by thirty-two smaller vessels laden with combustible materials, which would keep the defenders of the bridge busy until the two great ships reached Parma’s masterpiece and utterly destroyed it.
The date for the attack was to be dusk on 5 April 1585, and the enterprise was placed into the hands of Admiral Jacob Jacobzoon. He began badly, sending all the thirty-two vanguard ships down the Scheldt almost all at once rather than in the steady progression previously agreed upon. On each bank, and from every dyke and fortress, the Spanish troops gathered in their thousands to gaze at the burning flotilla that was turning the night back into day with its ruddy glow. Some of the boats hit the forward barges of the bridge and stuck on the spikes, where they burned themselves out ineffectively. Others struck the banks or ran aground. Some simply sank into the river as their own fires consumed them.
To the guardians of the bridge the attack seemed to be having no effect, but behind these minor vessels there now loomed the two great ones. They meandered somewhat aimlessly with the tide and the current, because their pilots had long since abandoned them. There was a moment of concern for the Spanish when the Fortune swung towards the side of the river, completely missing the forward protective raft. It eventually ground itself while, unknown to the Spanish defenders, the slow match burned through. There was a small explosion, and some minor damage, but so slight was the effect that Parma sent a boarding party to examine the interior of the ship.
They did not stay long, because the Hope had now followed its sister downstream. Its precision in finding its target could not have been better if it had been guided until the very last moment, because it managed to hit the bridge next to the blockhouse where the middle pontoons began. However, as Parma had confidently expected, the bridge had been so strongly built that the impact alone caused it no damage. Expecting it to be another fireship, Spanish boarders leapt on to the deck, and with excited whoops of laughter promptly extinguished the decoy fire. With some sixth sense, an ensign rushed up to his commander and begged him to leave the scene. So earnest were the man’s pleas that Parma reluctantly withdrew to the Fort of Santa Maria. This saved his life, for at that very moment the Hope exploded.
Not only did the ship vanish, so did much of the bridge, the banks, the dykes, the fortresses, and for a brief moment even the waters of the Scheldt, as possibly the largest man-made explosion in history up to that date lit up the night sky. The facts and statistics of the act took months to establish, and still have the power to cause amazement. The entire centre section of the bridge disintegrated. More than a thousand Spanish soldiers died instantly, and their bodies were never found. Houses nearby collapsed as if hit by an earthquake, and the pressure wave blew people off their feet. From the sky there began to fall the cannonballs and stones that had been crammed into the ship, accompanied by the mortal remains of its immediate victims. Slabs of granite were later found buried deep in the ground having travelled six miles from the scene of the explosion.
The personal tales were also quite remarkable. One Marquis Richebourg, who had been in command on the bridge, simply disappeared. His body was located several days later, its progress through the air having been arrested by one of the chains Parma had strung across the river. Seigneur de Billy’s body was not located until months afterwards when his golden locket and an unpleasant stain on one of the surviving bridge supports provided identification. The fortunate Duke of Parma was merely knocked unconscious by a flying stake. One captain was blown out of one boat and landed safely in another. A certain Captain Tucci was blown vertically into the air in his full armour and dumped in the river, where he still retained the presence of mind to remove his cuirass and swim to safety. Another young officer was blown completely across the river and landed safely after a flight of half a mile.
The original plan was that immediately after the expected explosion Admiral Jacobzoon should launch a signal rocket that would send boatloads of armed Dutchmen pouring on to the scene. Instead, he was totally stupefied by the explosion and gave no order. No rocket was fired and no one advanced. During the hiatus Parma regained consciousness, and by displaying leadership skills of unbelievable quality he managed to marshal his men to begin to repair the damage. Even though the Dutch advance was expected at any moment, it never came. By daybreak, even Parma began to believe the unbelievable – that the Dutch rebels, having set off the largest explosion since the introduction of gunpowder to Europe and blown a hole in his bridge, were now going to let him mend it. Yet this is precisely what happened.
The battle for the Kowenstyn dyke
The Kowenstyn Dyke
With the initiative lost it took the defenders of Antwerp a full month to mount another attack on Parma’s besieging army. The new attack was not against his damaged bridge but on the mighty Kowenstyn dyke. As the target was an earthen dam explosives would not have been effective, so the goal of breaking the great barrier would be made by men capturing the dyke with pike and musket and then cutting it with pick and shovel. It was a low-tech solution, and it was likely to be a very bloody one.
Following a successful landing a fierce `push of pike’ began on top of the Kowenstyn dyke. The rebels could well have been shoved back into the water had it not been for the arrival of the other half of their army downstream from Antwerp. For once in this campaign a co-ordinated effort had actually worked, and three thousand men now occupied this small section of the dyke. Among them was an eighteen-year-old youth called Maurice of Nassau, the son and heir of William the Silent, who was experiencing his first real taste of combat in what was to become a renowned military career. While two walls of soldiers shot, cut and speared their enemies, the sappers began two very different but complementary operations: to reinforce the dyke with trenches and mounds, and also to cut a hole through it. At last a loud cheer went up as the salt water rushed in a torrent through the newly created gap. A few moments later a Zeeland barge sailed through.
It is to the great credit of the Spanish commanders on the scene that they did not immediately panic; they stayed calm, even though their leader was some distance away. They were also sensible enough to realise that a breach sufficient to allow a Zeeland barge through was by no means sufficient to permit the passage of an entire fleet, and if the dyke could somehow be recaptured then the rupture might even be repaired. Five attacks followed along the dyke in a manner that demonstrated beyond all doubt why the Spanish were regarded as the finest infantry in Europe. The last assault was successful, and it was not long before intelligence arrived in Antwerp that the wild celebrations currently taking place were somewhat premature.
The failure plunged Antwerp into despair and forced its rulers back to the negotiating table. They sought three reassurances from Parma: that religious freedom would be granted, that troops would not be stationed in the city, and that the hated citadel would not be rebuilt. Knowing that King Philip II would accept none of these `exorbitant ideas’, as Parma termed them, he reminded the citizens of Antwerp of the stranglehold he still had on their city. But he had other cards to play, and drew their attentions to the role of Antwerp as the `great opulent and commercial city’ that it had been in the past and could be again. What cause, what real cause, did rich Antwerp have with the heretical Sea Beggars of Holland and Zeeland? Surely the loyal south was more to their liking?
Parma’s own fears lay with the winter that was fast approaching. It turned out to be so severe that Parma’s bridge would have been unlikely to survive, but by the time winter came a settlement had already been reached. A minor concession regarding the troops to be stationed in Antwerp proved sufficient for all parties to be satisfied, and Antwerp capitulated with honour on 17 August 1585 without a shot having been fired at the city itself. There was no massacre, no sack, no pillage and Parma’s soldiers were paid not by loot but in hard cash. The noble Duke of Parma had achieved his objectives, and, unknown to him at the time, he had actually achieved something quite remarkable. By detaching the fate of Antwerp and the lands to the south from the United Provinces of The Netherlands he had effectively created a recognisable and workable border. In 1648, as part of the Treaty of Westphalia, this border was to be given both recognition and reality, confirming that Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma, had invented Belgium.
The Relief of Derry I
As July dawned those within the walls could not be certain what the future held for them. True, they had beaten off Rosen’s attempt to storm the city and foiled his plan to hasten their starvation by forcing them to take so many of their fellow Protestants inside the walls. The latter Jacobite plan had even had some beneficial effects for the defenders who had been able to enlist some able bodied men from the ranks of those who had been driven to the walls; these volunteers remained in Derry until the end of the siege. The latters’ presence helped steel the resolve of the garrison not to surrender, since many of the newcomers had had protections from either King James or Hamilton which provided evidence to others of the perfidy of the Jacobites.
Of course, the defenders had tried to get some of their weakest citizens out of the city when the gallows was taken down and the hostages were allowed to return home. However, many of these individuals were obvious to the Jacobites who recognized ‘them by their colour’, a polite way of saying that they were dirtier than the average seventeenth-century citizen. Those so identified were sent back, but there were many, womenfolk among them, who were able to get away from the city. The Jacobite prisoners in the city were returned to their lodgings.
Mackenzie notes that Walker’s sermon was a discouraging one’ rather than one that boosted the morale of soldiers and citizens. He notes that Captain Charleton chose this time, 28 July, to abandon the city and go over to the Jacobites. There is an implication here that Charleton had listened to Walker preach and had not been impressed. Mackenzie’s analysis of the morale within the city is probably much closer to the truth than Walker’s. The Presbyterian minister commented that ‘the desperate necessities that were growing upon us had almost sunk us all into a despair of relief.
Mackenzie’s comment that the city was despairing of being relieved made all the more wondrous the sighting that evening, at about 7 o’clock, of three ships in Lough Foyle approaching Culmore. Walker wrote that this sighting was made ‘in the midst of our extremity’ while Ash described the day as one ‘to be remembered with thanksgiving by the besieged as long as they live’. Ash and Mackenzie date this day of thanksgiving as 28 July, whereas Walker places it two days later on the 30th. And while Walker and Mackenzie number the ships at three, Ash observed four vessels that ‘came swiftly to Culmore without harm’. One other source, the account by Joshua Gillespie, names the fourth ship as being the cutter Jerusalem; this vessel was about the same size as the Phoenix.
Irrespective of the date, or of the exact number of ships, relief now appeared close at hand. HMS Dartmouth, Captain Leake’s frigate, was escorting three merchant vessels, the Mountjoy of Derry, under Captain Michael Browning, a Derryman, the Phoenix of Coleraine, whose master was Captain Andrew Douglas, also of Coleraine but a Scot by birth, and the cutter Jerusalem, commanded by Captain Pepwell. We have seen how Richards observed three ships in Lough Swilly being loaded with provisions and setting sail for Lough Foyle on 20 July: these are the same vessels on the final leg of their journey. According to Richards, Kirke accompanied the little convoy in HMS Swallow, which does not feature in the accounts from Ash, Mackenzie or Walker, suggesting that Swallow left the others at some point and that only HMS Dartmouth, the cutter and the two merchant ships made the run up Lough Foyle as far as Culmore. It seems that Swallow drew too much draught to allow the ship to sail up to the city; although the water was quite deep at Culmore where the river enters the lough it became shallower on the approach to the city. With Major-General Percy Kirke on board, Swallow anchored in the lough where she dropped her longboat which was to play a significant part in the breaking of the boom; from the ship’s maintop, Kirke was able to watch what was happening, although he was too far away to see in detail the events at the boom.
The choice of the Mountjoy and Phoenix seems to have been deliberate on Kirke’s part since it permitted two local vessels to play the central role in the concluding act of the drama at Derry. According to Mackenzie, Browning had volunteered to make the run for the city before, while both Ash and Mackenzie agree that Kirke chose him to lead the relief because he was a Derryman. Ash wrote that Browning ‘had that honour conferred upon him by Major-General Kirke, to be the man who should bring relief to Derry.’ Honour it may have been, but it also placed Browning at great risk and he was to pay, with his life, the full price for accepting that risk. Of course, there might have been a more pragmatic reason for Kirke’s choice of Browning and Douglas: their familiarity with the waters of the Foyle. As a native of the city, Browning would have known the Foyle better than any of the other captains, and Douglas of Coleraine must also have been very familiar with its waters. One eminent naval historian has commented that ‘to Captain Browning the soundings and tidal sets in the River all the way to Londonderry would be thoroughly familiar and Mountjoy as it were, knew her own way home!’ Whatever the circumstances, Kirke had now heeded the appeal from the city for immediate help; to its inhabitants the appearance of the relief vessels seemed to be a miracle.
As the ships approached Culmore Fort, HMS Dartmouth hove to, ‘drew in her sails and cast anchor’.6 An artillery combat between the ships and the gunners in Culmore Fort then began as Dartmouth’s role was to attempt to draw the fire of the fort from the two merchant ships while trying to suppress that fire with her own guns; Leake’s frigate, a fifth-rater, carried twenty-eight guns, about half of which could be brought to bear on Culmore. Rather than firing broadsides the frigate would have ripple-fired her guns at the fort, increasing the pressure on the latter’s gunners by maintaining a constant fire which would not have been possible with broadsides. Leake had also placed his ship between the fort and the channel that the merchant ships would use. The latter were not helpless since they also carried cannon (Douglas of the Phoenix had earlier in the year been issued with letters of marque as a privateer by the Scottish government) and each had forty soldiers on board. Now, as Leake’s ship hammered at the fort, Browning, Douglas and Pepwell prepared to take their ships through the narrow channel at Culmore and upriver towards the boom. Leake’s orders were that Mountjoy would sail with Dartmouth, Phoenix would not weigh anchor until Dartmouth was engaged with the fort and Jerusalem would await a signal from Leake that one of the other ships had passed the boom before weighing anchor. It was a well-conceived plan but one still fraught with danger for all the ships.
In a subsequent despatch to London, Kirke noted that
Captain Leake, commander of the Dartmouth, behaved himself very bravely and prudently in this action, neither firing great or small shot (though he was plied very hard with both) till he came on the wind of the Castle, and there began to batter that the victuallers might pass under the shelter of his guns; then lay between the Castle and them within musket-shot and came to an anchor.
Covered at Culmore by the guns of Leake’s warship, Mountjoy led the way and Browning sailed his ship into the boom in the hope that the force of the vessel striking it would break the structure, thereby clearing the way for the other vessels. But he was unsuccessful. His ship struck the boom, rebounded and ran aground on the east bank. Mackenzie’s interpretation of events is slightly different, with the wind dying as the Mountjoy reached the boom, the ship failing to strike it in the ‘dead calm succeeding’ and then running aground. From this version it would seem that it was the tide that pushed Browning’s ship aground; other sources indicate that Mackenzie was correct. Whatever the circumstances of the grounding, the result was the same: Mountjoy was at the mercy of the Jacobites. And it was then that the ship’s redoubtable captain perished. Within sight of his home town, and with his mission almost accomplished, Browning was struck in the head by a musket ball and fell dead on Mountjoy’s deck. William R Young, who, in 1932, produced a gazetteer of the principal characters of the siege, wrote this highly imaginative paean on the breaking of the boom:
Nothing perhaps in the story of the siege is more thrilling than the rush of the Mountjoy on the terrible Boom. We can picture the captain, sword in hand, standing on by the wheel and commanding operations until killed by the fatal shot.
It may be noted that Ash wrote that Browning ‘stood upon the deck with his sword drawn, encouraging his men with great cheerfulness’ and this is, presumably, Young’s source.
With loud cheers large numbers of Jacobite soldiers raced towards the water’s edge where some prepared to take to boats from which they might board the stricken Mountjoy. Farther along the river, closer to the city, other Jacobites took up the exuberant cheering of their comrades and called to the garrison that their ships had been taken.
We perceived them both firing their guns at them, and preparing boats to board them, [and] this struck such a sudden terror into our hearts, as appeared in the very blackness of our countenances. Our spirits sunk, and our hopes were expiring.
But once again circumstances conspired against the Jacobites. The Mountjoy discharged a broadside, obviously from the port side, and this, with the rising tide, freed the ship from the grip of the mud to set her afloat again. According to Ash, it was the inrushing tide that floated the Mountjoy. All the while, both HMS Dartmouth and the Phoenix had been firing at the Jacobites. Restored to her natural element, Browning’s ship began to engage the Jacobite batteries and steered once more for the boom. This was to be the crucial test of de Pointis’ creation. It will be remembered that the French engineer’s first effort had been an abject failure, sinking below the water due to the weight of the oak used in its construction. The boom that now stretched across the Foyle was constructed of fir beams held together with metal clamps, chains and rope and with both ends anchored firmly on dry land.
Walker believed that the Mountjoy had broken the boom when first it struck and this version is also included in Gillespie’s narrative, but the boom was actually broken by sailors in HMS Swallow’s longboat.16 These men do not feature in any of the indigenous siege narratives, and it appears that, if the writers of those narratives were told the detail of the breaking of the boom, they decided not to tell the full story. The longboat had been lowered from Swallow to accompany the ships that would make the run upriver and it was the ten-man crew of that boat who finally broke the boom. Since their part in this episode is so important, it is pleasant to record that the names of these seamen have been preserved in Admiralty records. Boatswain’s Mate John Shelley commanded the longboat and his crew were Robert Kells, Jeremy Vincent, James Jamieson, Jonathan Young, Alexander Hunter, Henry Breman,4 William Welcome, Jonathan Field and Miles Tonge. And it was Shelley who used the axe, leaping on to the boom to do so and receiving a splinter wound in the thigh in the process. This involvement of the longboat crew is supported by a Jacobite report that indicates that both the Mountjoy and Phoenix were towed by longboats.
The principal Jacobite account of events suggested that it was actually HMS Dartmouth that made the run upriver:
The ship then aforesaid [Dartmouth] took the opportunity on this day of the tide and a fair gale of wind, and so came up to the fort of Culmore, and at all hazards ventured to sail by. The fort made some shots at her, but to no purpose. She, being got clear of that fort, arrived before the next battery, which fired also at her, but the ball flew too high. She came to the last battery; this did her no damage. She struck at the boom, which she forced presently, and so went cleverly up to the quay of Londonderry. What shouts of joy the town gave hereat you may easily imagine.
It should be remembered that A Jacobite Narrative of the War in Ireland was written some years after the siege and the author’s information came from other individuals. Thus it is not so surprising that he believed Dartmouth to have been the vessel that ran the gauntlet of the Jacobite batteries along the Foyle, broke the boom and took relief to the beleaguered city.
Richards also includes an account of how the boom was broken which was delivered to the camp at Inch on 30 July by ‘several people . . . from the Irish camp’ who had seen the ships pass up the Foyle ‘with provisions to Derry quay on Sunday night last past’. These witnesses had seen the man of war lie within Culmore and batter ‘all the upper part of the wall down, so that there is now no shelter for men’. But they differed in telling how the ships got up to the city. Two versions of the breaking of the boom were offered, one of which told of Shelley and his fellow seamen in the longboat. This was, however, an exaggerated version which included a ‘boat with a house on it’ that came to the boom where it stopped ‘and of a sudden a man (a witch they say) struck three strokes with a hatchet upon the Boom, and cut [it] asunder, and so passed on’ with the ships following. The ‘house’ might have been a form of protection against musket fire, as Kirke indicated by describing the longboat as being ‘well barricado’d’. The second version held that the two ships made the run together and struck the boom simultaneously, breaking it so that both were then able to pass on to the city. Kirke’s despatch to London noted that it was the weight of the Mountjoy that broke the boom after Shelley had wielded his axe. That report also contains the information that there were about four Jacobite guns at the boom ‘and 2,000 small shot upon the river’; it also notes that five or six Williamite soldiers were killed, that Lieutenant Leys of Sir John Hanmer’s Regiment was wounded and that Shelley was also injured.
The passage of over three centuries has obliterated the stories of most of the individuals involved in the siege and associated operations and this has been the case especially with those who did not hold commissioned rank. Even the small boy who did such sterling service carrying despatches is not named by any of the chroniclers, and we know only the surname of that unfortunate swimmer McGimpsey who volunteered to carry despatches from the city to Kirke. However, there are a few exceptions and these include the men who broke the boom, John Shelley and his shipmates who manned Swallow’s longboat. Not only did Captain Wolfranc Cornwall reward them with a guinea apiece, although Shelley received five guineas, but he also wrote to the Admiralty on 8 October recommending each of the men to whom further payments were made, bringing their awards to £10 each.
Pointis’ efforts had been in vain and suggest either that the boom had not been strong enough or that the metal used to hold the beams together had rusted to such an extent that at least one joint had broken when the Mountjoy hit. In spite of the first failed effort with the oaken boom, it seems most unlikely that de Pointis would have been guilty of creating a sub-standard defence since he was both an engineer and a naval officer who should have known exactly the pressure that was likely to be put on the boom. Against this, Louis’ representative, Comte d’Avaux, considered that the breaking of the boom proved how poor a job de Pointis had done: ‘the boom was so badly built that it could not resist the little boats that towed the two small vessels carrying the supplies’. He went on to say that the boom had ‘more than once’ already been damaged by the wind and the force of the tide. This further comment suggests that maintenance work on the boom had been inadequate, which was probably due to the fact that de Pointis was ill much of the time and unable to exercise the control he might otherwise have done. There is also the fact that Richard Hamilton did not regard the boom as being important which would have reduced the importance given to maintenance when de Pointis was not exercising regular supervision.
However, the boom had never been intended to be the sole counter against Williamite ships coming up the Foyle. It formed part of a defence system in which the artillery batteries along the river were also crucial. We have seen that the Williamite commentators wrote that the Jacobite artillery poured a heavy fire into the relief squadron but the principal Jacobite account, from A Light to the Blind, takes a very different viewpoint.
But it is not so easy to understand how came this ship to pass scot-free by so many batteries, and yet in four or five weeks before, three vessels attempting the same fact were repulsed. The king’s soldiers answer that the gunners of the batteries, or some of them, were this morning, the thirty-first of July, drunk with brandy, which caused them to shoot at random. But still there remains a question, whether these officers became inebriated without any evil design, or whether they were made to drink of purpose to render them incapable to perform their duty that day; and whether the English money aboard the fleet in the pool was not working upon them for this effect during the time they lay there on the coast.
The writer of that narrative goes on to state that ‘these gunners lost Ireland through their neglect of duty’. His suggestion that the gunners – by which he really means the officers commanding the guns – had been bribed by the Williamites is implausible and more likely to be the result of paranoia than to be based on any real evidence. A similar accusation was made following the Jacobite defeat at Aughrim in 1691: that the Jacobite general Henry Luttrell had, literally, sold the pass to the Williamites. And there is, of course, a parallel with the accusations made about Lundy, Walker and other leading Williamite figures. Both sides in this war were eager to attribute success to the intervention of the Almighty but any failures or setbacks were seen as being the result of human perfidy. The writer was also unaware of the fact that the three vessels that he thought had been trying to sail upriver some weeks before had not been doing so but had been carrying out a reconnaissance.
With the remains of the boom floating useless in the water, the two merchant ships passed through. HMS Dartmouth remained on station at Culmore and the Jerusalem ‘came near the man of war, but no farther that night’. The cutter had been due to weigh anchor and enter the river on a signal from Leake’s ship but ‘the wind slackened, grew calm and changed about to the SW’. In fact, Dartmouth remained on station at Culmore until 8 o’clock next morning ‘by reason of the tide’ during which time she returned the Jacobite fire five or six shots for one. The ship also endured considerable musket fire from the Jacobites on either side of the river but her casualties were remarkably light with but a single soldier killed and another wounded, while the ship’s purser, Mr Lee, suffered a contusion. No serious damage was incurred.
As the other ships ‘made their way majestically to the City, to the inexpressible joy of the inhabitants, and to the utter disappointment of the enemy’, Phoenix took the lead and was first to dock at the city where Captain Douglas was received by Governor Mitchelburne who told him that ‘this will be a night of danger’. Both vessels berthed at about 10 o’clock ‘not saluted by the turbulent acclamations of the garrison, but with heartfelt and devout gratitude to him who is the unerring disposer of all events’. Young conjectures that
We can see the arrival of the Mountjoy and the Phoenix at Derry’s quay. We can almost hear the acclamations of the starving population, and we can sympathise with the captain’s weeping widow, who was meeting a dead husband.
In Ireland Preserved, Mitchelburne attributes the following words to ‘Evangelist’, or Walker:
Heaven has heard our prayers, the sighs and groans and shrieks of the distressed have reached the heavens, and has delivered us from the implacable, wicked and designing malice of our merciless enemies.
Of the contemporary accounts, only that from Richards mentions that the merchant ships were towed in by longboats. He claims that these were manned by local people, who came out when the ships were close to Pennyburn, but where the boats came from he does not explain; apart from the locally-built boat and the Jacobite boat captured at Dunalong, there were supposedly no boats in the city. Significantly, none of the local accounts include any mentions of these boats, suggesting that Richards, still on Inch, might have been misinformed. As the ships tied up at the quay the guns in the cathedral tower were fired to let the fleet know that the relief vessels had reached the city safely.
The Relief of Derry II
Sadler, William; The Relief of Derry; National Museums Northern Ireland;
The arrival of this squadron of the relief fleet brought an angry reaction from the Jacobites who opened fire on the quay and the city from across the river. Such was the danger to those unloading the vessels that blinds had to be constructed along the quay; these were improvized from casks and hogsheads filled with earth and built up to form a wall. In the course of the night the blinds were tested fully as the gunners over the river maintained a ‘brisk and continued cannonading . . . against the town’.
From the Phoenix those acting as stevedores, men detailed from each of the companies in the city, unloaded 800 containers of meal that had been brought from Scotland and for which a petition had been presented to the Scottish government. Browning’s Mountjoy which could carry 135 tons, had brought ‘beef, peas, flour, biscuits etc all of the best kind’ which had been sent from England. These were all carried to the store houses. This restocking of the stores brought, in Walker’s words, ‘unexpressible joy’ to the garrison which he reckoned had but two days’ rations left ‘and among us all one pint of meal to each man’. Nine lean horses were all that remained for meat – where these came from is not made clear; the last horse had supposedly been slaughtered long since – and hunger and disease had reduced the one-time garrison of 7,500 to about 4,300, of whom at least a quarter were unfit for service. The first issues of food from the newly-arrived provisions were made the following morning and must have been as great a boost to the morale of the garrison and people of the city as the sight of the Mountjoy and Phoenix making for the quay.
The siege was over. Richard Hamilton knew that the arrival of the relief ships would allow the garrison to hold out longer and how he must have rued his decision to countermand de Pointis’ plan for a second boom and to carry out maintenance work on the boom that had been completed. He knew also that Kirke had a strong force on Inch and that this might march for Derry at any time while Schomberg was preparing an even larger force that would soon land in Ulster to link up with Kirke’s contingent and the Enniskillen garrison. There was no alternative but for the Jacobite army to quit Derry. It had failed in its objective with every plan adopted seemingly doomed. On the day following the arrival of the Mountjoy and Phoenix, Ash commented that there was ‘nothing worth note’ although Mackenzie recorded that the Jacobites continued to fire on the city from their trenches.
But the decision to quit was taken that day. According to the writer of A Light to the Blind, the decision was made by de Rosen who
seeing the town relieved with provisions contrary to expectation, and that there was no other way at present to take it, judged it in vain to remain there any longer, and so he commanded the army to prepare for rising the next day, and for marching back into Leinster, and approaching to Dublin.
On 1 August the Jacobite army decamped from Derry. It had lain before the city for fifteen weeks with the loss of some 2,000 men dead, a figure that probably underestimates considerably the true losses. Walker, who wrote that the enemy ‘ran away in the night time, [and] robbed and burnt all before them for several miles’, also estimated the Jacobite dead at between 8,000 and 9,000 plus a hundred of their best officers. The scorched-earth tactic is confirmed by Ash who wrote that the enemy ‘burned a great many houses in the County of Derry and elsewhere’ and that, when he went to visit his own farm on 1 August, he found ‘the roof of my house was smoking in the floor, and the doors falling off the hinges’. Berwick was later to attain notoriety for his use of the same tactic elsewhere in Ireland, and it is possible that he was also advocating its use at Derry. A deserter from Berwick’s camp who arrived at the Williamite base on Inch said that he had been with the duke at Castlefinn when several officers arrived with the news that relief had reached the defenders of the city, An enraged Berwick
flung his hat on the ground and said, ‘The rogues have broken the siege and we are all undone.’ He says also, it was at once resolved to immediately quit the siege, and burn, and waste, all before them; but upon second consideration they have despatched a messenger to the late King James at Dublin, of which they expect an answer. In the mean time, they have sent out orders to all the Catholics to send away all their goods and chattels, and to be ready to march themselves whenever the army moves. It is also resolved to drive all the Protestants away before them, and to lay the country in waste as much as they can.
So it would seem that Berwick was the man responsible for ordering so much destruction. The troops at Inch saw several ‘great fires’ in the direction of Letterkenny, to the south-west, which they believed to be villages set alight by the retreating Jacobites. Under cover of darkness, a company of musketeers, under Captain Billing, crossed from Inch to the mainland near Burt castle and then marched about a mile before surprising a small guard of Jacobite dragoons and securing a safe passage to Inch for several Protestant families with their cattle and whatever other goods were found en route. Confirmation that the Jacobites were quitting the area was provided when several parties of their horsemen were seen ‘setting fire to all the neighbouring villages, which gives us great hopes that they don’t design any long stay in these parts’. Kirke reported that the Jacobites ‘blew up Culmore Castle, burnt Red Castle and all the houses down the river’. By then he had returned to Lough Swilly in HMS Swallow and come ashore at Inch.
According to Walker, some of the garrison, ‘after refreshment with a proper share of our new provisions’, left the city to see what the enemy was doing. Jacobite soldiers were observed on the march and the Williamites set off in pursuit. This proved to be an ill-advised move as they encountered a cavalry unit performing rearguard duty for the Jacobites and the horsemen engaged their pursuers, killing seven of them.
Of course, there had been two wings of the Jacobite army, separated by the Foyle. These made their discrete ways to the nearest point at which a junction could be effected, in the vicinity of Strabane. Retreating from before the city’s western and southern defences, the Jacobites made their way to Lifford, back to the area of the fords where they had achieved one of their few real successes of the campaign. Likewise, those who had formed the eastern wing of the besieging force withdrew to Strabane, although some are known to have moved east towards Coleraine. Strabane appears to have been a temporary stop for the army as the commanders awaited further news. What news they received was not good: the Jacobite force in Fermanagh had been defeated at the battle of Newtownbutler where Lord Mountcashel had suffered the greatest defeat yet inflicted on Jacobite arms in Ulster.
On 3 August news reached the camp at Inch that the main Jacobite army was now at Strabane, and Kirke felt confident enough to send Captain Henry Withers to Liverpool on board HMS Dartmouth with a despatch for ‘King and Parliament [detailing] our great success against the Irish Papists’. Ash recorded that, at Lifford, the Jacobites were in such haste to be away that they ‘burst three of their great guns, left one of their mortar pieces, and threw many of their arms into the lake’. By bursting the guns he meant that the Jacobite gunners had destroyed their weapons; this was usually done by dismounting the barrels, filling them with powder and burying them muzzle down before discharging them. This action had been taken following news of the disaster at Newtownbutler which was the final factor in the Jacobite decision to quit Ulster. In their going they dumped many weapons in the river and left behind many of their comrades who were sick. Between the city and Strabane, some groups of Jacobite grenadiers who were engaged in setting fire to houses were taken prisoner by Williamite troops.
A few Williamites were probably fit enough to take part in such forays outside the town, but it is more likely that the patrols were from the fresh troops who had landed in the city with the Mountjoy, Phoenix and Jerusalem, although they would have numbered only about 120 men. Some foragers from the city brought in a ‘great number of black cattle from the country for the use of the garrison’, but these dairy cattle were restored to their owners the following day. It seems that not everything had been destroyed by the Jacobites and, since these cattle belonged to Williamites, it also appears that those in the vicinity of the city had not suffered too much in the days of the siege. Much of their losses probably occurred as a result of the Jacobite forces venting their anger at failing to take the city.
With the Jacobite army withdrawing, Walker expressed some impatience to see Kirke, whom he described as ‘under God and King, our Deliverer’. He sent a delegation of five men, including two clergymen, to Inch to meet Kirke, give him an account of the raising of the siege, convey the city’s thanks to him and invite him to come and meet the garrison. The latter invitation was superfluous since Kirke would have intended to come to the city anyway. Richards recorded that Walker’s men stayed all night at Inch due to the very wet and windy weather. Following the visit of that delegation, Kirke sent Colonel Steuart and Jacob Richards to the city ‘to congratulate our deliverance’ according to Walker but, according to Richards, to give the orders necessary for repairs to the city and its fortifications. This was a precursor to Kirke’s own arrival which took place on Sunday 4 August. On the same day he had ordered a detachment of seventy-two men from each regiment ‘to march over to Londonderry, there to encamp and make up huts for the several regiments against they arrive’.
Windmill Hill had been chosen as the site for the encampment of the relieving forces. The local regiments were to remain within the walls, and the two forces were to be segregated to prevent an outbreak of disease among the newly-arrived troops. The camp at Inch was to be abandoned save for the hospital and a small garrison of 200 men with six artillery pieces commanded by Captain Thomas Barbour. Moving the relief force’s supplies and impedimenta required the deployment of the ships to carry them out of the Swilly and around the north of Inishowen into Lough Foyle and hence to the city. That a small garrison was to be left at Inch suggests that there was some concern that not all the Jacobites had departed the region. On the 5th some ‘Irish skulking rogues came back to Muff, Ballykelly, Newtown and Magilligan, and burned houses which had escaped’ the previous depredations. These ‘skulking rogues’ would have been from that part of the Jacobite army that was falling back to Coleraine. (The Muff referred to here is the modern village of Eglinton in County Londonderry, while Newtown is Limavady.6)
Kirke was unimpressed by Derry and its defences, writing that
since I was born I never saw a town of so little strength to rout an army with so many generals against it. The walls and outwork are not touched [but] the houses are generally broke down by the bombs; there have been five hundred and ninety one shot into the town.
The major-general had already had a report from Richards about the state of the city. This had also included the observation that there was ‘little appearance of a siege by the damage done to the houses or walls’. However, Richards went on to report that
the people had suffered extremely, having for 5 weeks lived on horses, dogs, cats etc. They lost not during the whole siege 100 men by the sword, but near 6,000 through sickness and want and there still remained about 5,000 able fighting men in the town, who abound with the spoil of those they have killed or taken prisoner.
When Kirke arrived at Bishop’s Gate he was received with courtesy and some ceremony. There Mitchelburne, who would have already known him, and Walker, with other officers of the garrison, members of the corporation and ‘a great many persons of all sorts’ met him and offered him the keys to the city as well as the civic sword and mace, all of which Kirke returned to those who had presented the individual items. Soldiers lined the streets to receive their deliverer while the cannon on the walls fired in salute. Even the city’s sick, of whom there were many, made the effort to crawl to their doors and windows to see Kirke and his entourage. Mitchelburne and Walker entertained Kirke to dinner which was described as being ‘very good . . . considering the times; small sour beer, milk and water, with some little quantity of brandy, was and is the best of our liquors’. Following dinner he went to the Windmill to look at the camp for his soldiers. Ash noted that he rode on a white mare that belonged to Mitchelburne which the latter ‘had saved all the siege’. Presumably this was ‘Bloody Bones’, the charger gifted to Mitchelburne by Clotworthy Skeffington. One wonders that this fine animal had survived, but perhaps she had been kept outside the city?
As Kirke was preparing to return to Inch, three horsemen arrived carrying letters from the governors of Enniskillen. These brought official news of the success of the Williamite forces under Colonel Wolseley and Lieutenant-Colonel Tiffin at Newtownbutler. Details of the battle were included while, later that night, Kirke also received the news that Berwick was decamping from Strabane and that most of the army that had been before Derry had gone to Charlemont en route to Dublin. Kirke then rode back to Inch while Richards remained in the city to make further preparations for the arrival of the remainder of the relief force. Meanwhile Kirke had invited several of the leading citizens to dine with him on Inch the following day. This might not have been the most convivial of occasions for Walker, since Kirke took the opportunity to suggest that it was time for him ‘to return to his own profession’.
Kirke’s three regiments arrived in the city on the 7th with the major-general at their head; their baggage was en route by sea. Once again there was a rapturous reception, with the defenders coming out in force to give the troops three cheers as well as a salute from their cannon. It also seems that all the garrison’s personal weapons were discharged as part of a feu de joie. And there was another dinner after which a council of war was held to which only field officers were invited. This meeting discussed regulating the local regiments, the civil administration of the city and ‘several other necessary things’, which included the market and cleansing the town. The latter task must have been of almost Herculean proportions. It was further decided that the following day would be one of thanksgiving.
And so, on 8 August, the city rejoiced for its deliverance. There was considerable merry-making but the day began with a sermon preached by Mr John Know, who told his congregation, which included Kirke, of the nature of the siege and ‘the great deliverance, which from Almighty God we have obtained’. That evening the city’s regiments were drawn up around the walls and fired three volleys while the cannon, too, were fired in salute. A proclamation was also issued stating that anyone who was not in the ranks of one of the regiments and had not resided in the city prior to the siege should return to their own homes before the following Monday. Nor were any goods to be taken out of the city without permission. With the Jacobites now far away, the bureaucrats were back in place. And it seemed that the closest Jacobites were at Coleraine ‘where they were fortifying themselves’.
Walker took ship for England the next day, there to produce and have published his ‘true account’ of the siege. Needless to say, this true account would be centred around the activities of Governor Walker, who would thus become the hero of the siege. The London Gazette for 19–22 August carried a report from Edinburgh that Walker had reached that city on the 13th with news that the Enniskilleners, under Colonels Wolseley and Tiffin, but whom he called Owsley and Tiffany, had routed the Jacobites on their retreat from Londonderry and caused heavy losses. This was Walker’s version of the battle of Newtownbutler which, in fact, had been fought between a different Jacobite force from that retreating from Derry and the defenders of Enniskillen. From Edinburgh he made his way to London and was received at Hampton Court by William and Mary; one report suggests that he received £5,000 ‘for his service at Londonderry’. For Mitchelburne, Murray and many others their sole reward was to be thanked for their services.
For those left behind in the city there were some indications of what lay in store for them. All who expected pay for their service in defending the city were told to appear in their arms at 10 o’clock on the following Monday. Whatever they anticipated, they were to be disappointed: no payment was ever made. There was a popular belief among the soldiers that Kirke would distribute £2,000 but ‘they soon found themselves mistaken, not only in that, but in their hopes of continuing in their present posts’. One man who had provided £1,000 to support the city in its travails was the Stronge who owned the land across the river. When Sir Patrick Macrory was writing his book on the siege he was told by Sir Norman Stronge, a direct descendant of that landowner, that he still held two notes, signed by Mitchelburne, promising that the money would be repaid. In 1980 Sir Norman calculated that the IOUs represented, with interest, some £60m. These notes were lost when republican terrorists attacked Sir Norman’s home at Tynan Abbey in County Armagh in 1981, murdering both Sir Norman and his son James before setting fire to and destroying their home.
On the 12th Kirke reduced the garrison’s regiments to four. Colonel Monroe’s and Colonel Lance’s Regiments were amalgamated, Walker’s Regiment was given to Colonel Robert White, Baker’s to Colonel Thomas St John – the would-be engineer of Inch – and Mitchelburne retained the regiment he had commanded throughout the siege, that which had been Clotworthy Skeffington’s. As White died soon after this re-organization his regiment passed to Colonel John Caulfield. No records have survived of the regiment formed by the amalgamation of Monroe’s and Lance’s Regiments, and so it would seem that the new unit had a very brief existence. This might have been less than a month, as Kenneth Ferguson notes that a royal warrant of 16 September adopted only three Londonderry battalions; Kirke was ordered to treat unplaced officers as supernumerary until vacancies could be found for them. Caulfield’s Regiment had been disbanded by 1694 and the surviving regiments, Mitchelburne’s and St John’s, were disbanded by 1698 by which time the War of the League of Augsburg had ended. In contrast, those regiments formed in Enniskillen had a much longer existence with three of them surviving, albeit in much changed form, to this day: Tiffin’s Regiment was the progenitor of the present Royal Irish Regiment while today’s Royal Dragoon Guards may be traced back to dragoon regiments raised in Enniskillen in 1689. However, in 1693 some survivors of the siege formed part of a new regiment, Henry Cunningham’s Regiment of Dragoons, raised in Ulster. In time, this regiment was ranked as the 8th Dragoons and later as 8th King’s Royal Irish Hussars. In 1958 amalgamation with 4th Queen’s Own Hussars created the Queen’s Royal Irish Hussars, the regiment that led the coalition advance into Kuwait in the Gulf War of 1991; the Hussars’ leading tank was called ‘Derry’ and the regiment was commanded by a Derryman. Perhaps some of the spirit of Murray’s Horse had passed down the centuries to the men who manned the Hussars’ Challenger tanks.
To return to 1689, Kirke continued his work on reforming the garrison, but he also organized a force to attack the Jacobites at Coleraine. However, when that force, led it seems by Kirke himself, approached Coleraine, the local garrison decided that it did not want to engage in a battle with the butcher of Sedgemoor and the town was abandoned. A plan had been made to destroy the bridge leading into Coleraine, thus at least delaying any Williamite advance if not assisting a Jacobite defence. This had involved coating the timbers of the bridge with pitch which would then be set alight as the foe approached. In the event the Jacobite garrison was so keen to quit the town that the bridge was left standing, those whose assigned task it had been to start the fire showing no heart for the job. The news that Coleraine had been regained reached London at the same time as the news that the town of Sligo had also been abandoned by the Jacobites. The latter information was far from accurate: Sligo did not fall into Williamite hands until 1691, following the battle of Aughrim.
The Williamite army continued its task of clearing Ulster. On 16 August Schomberg sailed from England ‘with a fair wind’ at the head of the main body of the force that was to be deployed in Ireland. At the beginning of September this army was engaged in the siege of Carrickfergus where Jacob Richards was wounded in both thigh and shoulder. Before long most of Ulster was in Williamite hands, with only pockets of Jacobite resistance remaining in the southern part of the province.
The key element in this campaign had been the siege of Derry. Had the city fallen to the Jacobites in April, or failed to hold out as it did, then the Williamite cause in Ulster would have been lost. Enniskillen could not have held out against a Jacobite army no longer distracted by the task of reducing the recalcitrant city and nor would Sligo have been able to sustain a defence for much longer. That the city on the Foyle was the vital element in saving all Ireland for the Williamites was recognized across the three kingdoms. George Walker, the soi-disant governor of Londonderry, was feted in London and took full advantage of the opportunity to further his own reputation with the publication of his book A True Account of the Siege of London-Derry. On 19 November he was thanked by the House of Commons for his services at Londonderry and responded:
As for the service I have done, it is very little, and does not deserve this favour you have done me: I shall give the thanks of this House to those concerned with me, as you desire, and dare assure you, that both I and they will continue faithful to the service of King William and Queen Mary to the end of their lives.
As the tide of war flowed elsewhere the people of north-west Ulster tried to begin their lives anew, safe from the threats that had so recently beset them. But it would be a very difficult task and one in which many of them would not succeed. The scars of those 105 days in 1689 would never fade and the attitude of the government at Westminster towards the survivors would help to ensure that.
Warsaw 1939 I
On September 8, 1939, one week into the Nazi invasion of Poland, German armoured troops reached the gates of Warsaw. The Polish government and High Command had left the city but a determined garrison awaited the enemy invader and the Poles were able to stave off two consecutive German attempts to take the capital by armoured attack. Thus began a siege that would last for three weeks and subject the Warsaw Army of over 100,000 and the civilian population of over one million to a ruthless campaign of aerial bombardment and heavy artillery shelling, causing thousands of casualties and widespread destruction. It was a hopeless battle that could only end in defeat and on September 27 the Polish garrison capitulated. The photos of the first penetration by tanks and infantry of the 4. Panzer-Division taken on September 9 became standard repertoire of German propaganda publications on the Blitzkrieg in Poland.
On September 8 – eight days after the start of the campaign and after an amazing dash of 80 kilometres in ten hours – lead elements of the 4. Panzer-Division suddenly appeared on the outskirts of Warsaw. Taking advantage of the surprise, the Germans immediately launched an attack into the city, hoping to capture it on the run. The first attack, in the late afternoon of the 8th and by Panzer-Regiment 35 only, was quickly stopped by the fierce Polish resistance in the outer borough of Ochota. The second attempt, by the entire division and on a double axis, on the morning of the 9th penetrated deeper into the city but was again repulsed in heavy fighting in Ochota and Wola. A Propaganda-Kompanie photographer, Bildberichter Otto Lanzinger, accompanied one of the attacking columns into the city and his pictures have become classic images of the 1939 fighting for Warsaw. Here a number of PzKpfw I and IIs roll forward while supporting infantry keep close to the houses.
A PzKpfw II advances past another one. These photographs were taken on Grojecka Street, the main thoroughfare entering Warsaw from the south-east and leading into the borough of Ochota, at its intersection with Siewierska Street. Grojecka was the axis of attack of Panzer-Regiment 35 both on the afternoon of the 8th and again during the morning of the 9th. The long shadows in Lanzinger’s photos show the sun in the east, which proves that they were taken on the 9th.
Some 150 metres back along Grojecka, near its junction with Przemyska Street, Lanzinger pictured a 7.5cm le. IG 18 light infantry gun set up to engage enemy troops defending behind a barricade. The gun has just fired off a round and smoke is still curling from its barrel. Panzer I and IIs are waiting behind. Black smoke rises up from a disabled vehicle in the background.
Back up front, and right in front of where Lanzinger is taking cover, another gun – this one a 3.7cm Pak 36 – has been set up. Across the street is its Krupp Kfz 69 towing vehicle. Two Panzer Is roll forward. The 4. Panzer-Division had begun the campaign with 341 tanks: 183 Panzer I, 130 Panzer II, 12 Panzer IV and 16 Panzerbefehlswagen. However, by the time it reached Warsaw, both tank regiments had suffered losses and all four tank battalions were below strength.
Map of initial ground attacks on Warsaw. Poles-blue, Germans-red.
Warsaw in 1939 was a city of 1.3 million inhabitants. From the very first hours of the campaign, this huge metropolitan area became the target of an unrestricted aerial bombardment campaign by Luftwaffe bombers and dive-bombers, mainly from Kesselring’s Luftflotte 1 supporting Heeresgruppe Nord.
On September 1, a force of some 90 Heinkel He 111 bombers from Kampfgeschwader 27, protected by 36 Me 109 fighters from Jagdgeschwader 21, together with 35 He 111s from II./Lehrgeschwader 1 raided the capital. They hit military targets, such as infantry barracks, the aerodrome and the PZL aircraft factory at Okecie in the south-west and the Warsaw radio station in Fort Mokotow in the south. However, right from the start, they also freely bombed civilian facilities such as waterworks, hospitals, market places and schools, and strafed civilians with machinegun fire. The attacks came as a complete surprise. The streets were crowded and dozens died in the first few minutes. Later that week, in order to disrupt communications, the bombers and dive-bombers attacked the city’s railway stations and the Vistula bridges – the latter without success. On September 3 alone 1,500 civilians were killed. A girls’ school was hit on the 4th.
Warsaw’s air defence depended mostly on the fighters of the Polish Air Force’s Pursuit Brigade (Brygada Poscigowa) under Colonel Stefan Pawlikowski. It comprised two squadrons and was equipped with 54 fighter aircraft, chiefly the PZL P. 7 and PZL P. 11 types. The city’s anti-aircraft artillery under Colonel Kazimierz Baran had 86 AA guns and various detachments of anti-aircraft machine guns.
Initially the air defence of the capital was fairly successful. During the first six days, the Pursuit Brigade managed to shoot down 43 enemy aircraft, while the anti-aircraft artillery destroyed a similar number. In addition, there were nine unconfirmed victories and 20 damaged aircraft. However, the brigade had itself also lost 38 machines, or approximately 70 per cent of its strength. The city’s air defence began to crumble on September 5 when the military authorities ordered 11 of the AA batteries withdrawn from Warsaw towards Lublin, Brest-Litovsk and Lwow. The following day, September 6, the remnants of the Pursuit Brigade were also transferred from the Warsaw sector to Lublin.
With rumours of the rout of the Polish armies reaching the capital, thousands of inhabitants packed their belongings and fled to the east, only to meet up with other refugees heading westwards. At the same time, masses of people entered the city from the west, fleeing before the German invading forces. Stukas swooped down on the long columns of people, strafing and striking terror at leisure.
On September 4, Polish President Ignacy Moscicki and his government evacuated from Warsaw, transferring their seat to Lublin, 150 kilometres to the south-east. Commander-in-Chief Marshal Smigly-Rydz and the Polish General Staff also left the capital, on the night of September 6/7, moving to Brest-Litovsk, also 150 kilometres to the rear. Their departure led to further panic and chaos in the capital.
At one time, it had been the Government’s intention to declare Warsaw an `open city’, but this idea was now abandoned. The capital would be defended at all cost. On September 3, before he left, Smigly-Rydz ordered the creation of an improvised Warsaw Defence Command (Dowodztwo Obrony Warszawy). General Walerian Czuma, the head of the Border Guard (Straz Graniczna), was appointed its commander and Colonel Tadeusz Tomaszewski its Chief-of-Staff.
Initially the forces under command of General Czuma were very limited. Most of the city authorities had withdrawn together with a large part of the police forces, firefighters and military garrison. Warsaw was left with only four battalions of infantry and one battery of artillery. Also, the spokesman of the Warsaw garrison had issued a communiqué in which he ordered all young men to leave the city. To co-ordinate civilian efforts and counter the panic that threatened to engulf the capital, Czuma appointed the President (Lord Mayor) of Warsaw, Stefan Starzynski, as the Civilian Commissar of the capital. Starzynski immediately started to organise the Civil Guard to replace the evacuated police forces and the fire-fighters. He also ordered all members of the city’s administration to return to their posts. In his daily radio broadcasts he asked all civilians to construct barricades and anti-tank barriers at the city outskirts.
Defensive field fortifications were constructed mostly to the west of the city limits. Streets were blocked with barricades and overturned tram cars. Cellars of houses were turned into pillboxes. Gradually, the forces of General Czuma were reinforced with volunteers, as well as rearguard troops and various army units, primarily from the Lodz and Prusy Armies, retreating before the onslaught of German armoured units. One was a stray battalion of the 41st Infantry Regiment `Suwalski’ from the destroyed 29th Division. On September 7, the 40th Infantry Regiment `Children of Lwow’, part of the 5th Division and commanded by LieutenantColonel Jozef Kalandyk, was transiting through Warsaw towards previously assigned positions with the Pomorze Army. The unit was stopped and joined the defence of the capital.
By the 8th General Czuma had gathered some 17 infantry battalions under his command, supported by 64 pieces of artillery and 33 tanks. The latter – 27 light tanks of the Vickers E, 7-TP and R-35 types and six TK-3 and TKS tankettes – were formed into the 1st and 2nd Light Tank Companies.
The last Polish formation defending before Warsaw was the 13th Infantry Division, positioned near Koluszki in central Poland. After bitter fighting with Hoepner’s XVI. Armeekorps on September 6-7, its lines were broken by the 4. Panzer-Division, which captured the town of Tomaszow Mazowiecki, located 115 kilometres southwest of Warsaw, During the night (September 7/8), most of the soldiers of the 13th Division panicked and deserted, enabling the 4. Panzer-Division to carry on to Rawa Mozawiecka, another 35 kilometres closer to the Polish capital.
On the morning of September 8, the 4. Panzer-Division – now well ahead of the rest of the 10. Armee – made a lightning dash towards Warsaw, 80 kilometres away. Moving out at first light from Rawa Mozawiecka, with Panzer-Regiment 35 in the lead, it brushed aside pockets of enemy resistance and reached Radziejowice, 35 kilometres on. With Polish soldiers surrendering by the thousands, the panzers rushed forward another 35 kilometres to Wolica, an outer suburb south-west of Warsaw, hoping to secure crossings over the Utrata river at Raszyn. Attacking at 1.15 p. m., the panzers destroyed two Polish light tanks and pushed back the Polish infantry but they could not prevent the Poles from blowing up two bridges right in front of them. Undaunted, the light panzers forded the brook, while attached engineers from Pionier-Bataillon 79, protected by infantry from SchützenRegiment 12, quickly repaired the crossings. Soon the lead troops were approaching Okecie, the airfield right on the south-western edge of the metropolitan area. Panzer-Regiment 35 had reached the city limits of Warsaw.
Back at the divisional command post at Nadarzyn, ten kilometres to the rear, Generalleutnant Georg-Hans Reinhardt was just receiving a visit from his army and corps commanders, Generals Reichenau and Hoepner. Having heard rumours that the Poles had declared their capital an open city, the three generals did not expect serious resistance and together they worked out exact plans for the seizure of the city. The division was to advance in two columns, with Panzer-Regiment 35 and Schützen-Regiment 12 on the right and Panzer-Regiment 36 and Infanterie-Regiment 33 on the left. However, the latter three units were still moving up and it would take some time for them to reach the start line.
Up front, the commander of Panzer-Regiment 35, Oberst Heinrich Eberbach, thought he could take the city on the run. Conferring with Hoepner and Reinhardt, he recommended that the surprise of the enemy be exploited and that he be allowed to continue the advance without waiting for the rest of the division. Permission was granted. A Storch light aircraft hurriedly flew in a few street maps of Warsaw and a plan of attack was made. Entering from the south-west, the regiment’s II. Abteilung was to advance across Pilsudski Square and then cross the Vistula to the east bank; the I. Abteilung was to remain in the centre of the city. Aerial support for the attack was quickly arranged through Kesselring’s Luftflotte 1 (nominally in support of Heeresgruppe Nord) which sent in 35 Henschel HS 123 biplane divebombers from II./Lehrgeschwader 2.
At 5 p. m. Eberbach’s regiment began the assault, advancing towards the borough of Ochota. A few rounds were fired. Just beyond the Rakowiec settlement the houses momentarily stopped, an open area partly filled with suburban vegetable gardens stretching out before the tankers’ eyes. The tanks moved across a road bridge, the actual outskirts of the city being 400 metres beyond. As they entered the built-up area, the road ahead was blocked by a barricade of overturned streetcars and furniture trucks. Suddenly, a rain of fire fell on the force. From four-storied apartment buildings, ventilation openings in the rooftops, windows and basement openings, Polish soldiers of the 40th `Children of Lwow’ and 41st `Suwalski’ Regiments opened up on the tanks with everything they had. One of the few PzKpfw IV (the whole regiment had just eight of these in its 4. and 8. Kompanie) received a direct hit. It was recovered under fire but the attack was stalling.
By now the sun was setting. Realising that Warsaw was not an open city and that the Poles were strongly defending it, Eberbach called off the attack and withdrew his tanks behind the bridge. For now, all by itself and well ahead of the rest of the division, the regiment needed to secure itself on all sides.
At 7.15 p. m. that evening – a point in time when the panzers were still battling in Ochota – German radio already broadcast the OKW communiqué bringing the headline news that German troops had penetrated into Warsaw.
During the night, the remaining elements of the division caught up with Panzer-Regiment 35: the tanks of Panzer-Regiment 36, the infantry of Schützen-Regiment 12 and Infanterie-Regiment 33 and the divisional artillery. Thinking he was now strong enough to take the city, Generalleutnant Reinhardt ordered the attack to be repeated the following morning with all available forces. PanzerRegiment 35, supported by Schützen-Regiment 12, was to repeat its attack along the main road into Ochota. Panzer-Regiment 36, supported by Infanterie-Regiment 33 and two engineer companies, was to launch an attack from positions further to the north, along the main road leading into the borough of Wola.
At 7 a. m. on September 9, following a tenminute preparatory artillery barrage on the city’s edge, the 4. Panzer-Division again moved into the assault. Dive-bombing support was once more provided by Luftflotte 1, which had dispatched the HS 123s from II./LG2 and 140 Stukas from StG77 and III./StG51.
Leading the attack into Ochota, the I. Abteilung of Panzer-Regiment 35 (Hauptmann Meinrad von Lauchert), with infantry mounted on the tanks, once again rolled across the bridge, followed by more infantry and attached engineers. The first road barricade was eliminated. Despite strong Polish resistance a second bridge was taken and the tanks reached the streets of Warsaw. Once in the built-up area, the German infantry had to take each house and clear it. The Poles resisted fiercely with burst of machine-gun fire, hand-grenades dropped from above and tossed from cellar openings, even with blocks of stones dropped from the roofs. Anti-tank mines buried in the road verges and adjoining fields disabled several panzers. The fiercest fighting in Ochota was at the barricade erected near the junction of Grojecka and Siewierska Streets and defended by the 4th Company of the 40th Regiment.
The panzers attempted to continue by themselves. The lead tank, commanded by Leutnant Georg Claass of the 1. Kompanie, was hit by a well-camouflaged anti-tank gun. The first round failed to knock it out but the second set the vehicle on fire. Claass and his radio operator managed to bail out but both later succumbed to their wounds. The same Polish gun immobilised the vehicle of the regimental adjutant, Oberleutnant Heinz-Günther Guderian (the son of the panzer general). Dismounting and escaping through a courtyard gate, Guderian came across the tank of Leutnant Diergardt and a platoon of infantry. Taking both under his command he continued the attack.
Advancing through courtyards and gardens, Leutnant Wilhelm Esser and two platoons of tanks from the 2. Kompanie were able to advance as far as the railway line, where Polish defences knocked out his radio. Oberfeldwebel Ziegler in his PzKpfw III assumed command of the remaining vehicles and managed to advance as far as the main railway station. All by himself in the middle of the capital, he eventually had to pull back. Leutnant Gerhard Lange worked his way forward to an enemy artillery position and opened fire on the guns with everything he had. The Poles attacked by throwing shaped charges against his tracks, which tore off one of the roadwheels and blocked his turret, and he too had to pull back.
Throughout the battle the Stukas of StG77 and III./StG51 gave support by attacking the Polish main artillery positions which were located in Praga, on the far side of the city and east of the Vistula. In addition to divebombing the gun sites, they swooped down on the city’s main avenues and on the railways in an attempt to obstruct Polish troop movements.
Around 9 a. m. Oberst Eberbach committed the II. Abteilung (Major Wilhelm Hochbaum), which had been held in reserve and was supported by another battalion of Schützen-Regiment 12, to the area one kilometre north of the main road, where the Polish defences appeared less well organised. This force initially made good progress, overrunning Fort Szczesliwice, one of the old fortifications surrounding the capital. However, as they reached the park beyond, the mounted riflemen received rifle and machine-gun fire from the high-rises on the left. Just as they deployed to engage it, Polish artillery fell among them and a few vehicles caught fire. Meanwhile, Polish anti-tank guns stopped the advance of the tanks. Oberleutnant Heinz Morgenroth, the commander of the 8. Kompanie, was fatally wounded. Of the two panzer platoons that advanced into the park, only three tanks came back.
The story was much the same with PanzerRegiment 36, attacking north of the railway line and into Wola. Here too, well-placed Polish 75mm anti-tank guns firing at pointblank range, and the barricades erected on main streets, managed to repel the German assault. The civilian population took an active part in the fighting and the Germans were halted with severe losses.
On several occasions the Poles made up for their lack of armament by ingenuity. Colonel Zdzislaw Pacak-Kuzmirski, commander of the 8th Company of the 40th Regiment, found 100 barrels of turpentine in the Dobrolin Factory and ordered his men to position these in front of the barricade at the intersection of Wolska, Elekcyjna and Redutowa Streets. When the German armour approached, the liquid was ignited and several tanks were destroyed without a single shot being fired.
The TP-7 tanks of the Warsaw Defence Command were actively engaged in the battles. Those of the 1st Light Tank Company joined in the heavy fights around Okecie airport, but they were no match for the German panzers and suffered considerable losses. Those of the 2nd Company took part in the successful defence of Wola.
At 10 a. m., after three hours of fruitless attack, Generalleutnant Reinhardt saw that the fighting could not be prolonged if his division was to remain as an operational unit and ordered his men to retreat to their initial line of departure. Casualties in tanks and infantry had been very heavy. Of the 220 tanks that had taken part in the assault, some 80 had been lost. Panzer-Regiment 35 alone, which had started the assault with 120 tanks, had only 57 left operational, including a single Panzer IV. Even the command tank of Generalleutnant Max von Hartlieb-Walsporn, commander of the 5. Panzer-Brigade
(which controlled the two panzer regiments), was immobilised by anti-tank fire as it made its way back. When the XVI. Armeekorps sent an order to renew the attack immediately, Reinhardt drove back to the corps command post and convinced Hoepner that this was absolutely impossible. All that could be done for now was to lay siege to the capital from the west.
During the night, a large number of the disabled panzers, including some that had run over mines, were recovered by their crews, in some cases from out of the Polish lines. Additional reinforcements arrived in the form of Infanterie-Regiment Leibstandarte-SS `Adolf Hitler’ (mot.), the Führer’s bodyguard unit turned into a motorised infantry unit and commanded by SS-Obergruppenführer Sepp Dietrich.
Warsaw 1939 II
Having warded off two consecutive ground attacks on the city, the defenders of Warsaw were now suddenly given a very welcome respite due to unexpected developments that were unfolding 100 kilometres west of the capital. That evening, September 9, the Poznan Army under Lieutenant-General Tadeusz Kutrzeba and the Pomorze Army under Lieutenant-General Wladyslaw Bortnowski launched a very strong surprise counter-attack against the left flank of the Heeresgruppe Süd forces advancing towards Warsaw.
With the two German pincers moving north and south of him, Kutrzeba’s army had until then been largely unaffected by the fighting and was still completely intact. As it moved back eastwards from Poznan, German army intelligence had somehow lost track of it and mistakenly assumed it had already pulled back behind the Vistula. Joining up with Bortnowski’s Pomorze Army, Kutrzeba saw a chance to strike at the northern flank of the German southern pincer. The Polish High Command initially turned down his proposal, ordering him to continue withdrawing to the Vistula, but early on the 8th he was given the green light. It was a desperate manoeuvre to stall the German advance and buy time for the organisation of Warsaw’s defence.
The attack, by eight infantry divisions and two cavalry brigades, fell on the 30. Infanterie-Division of Blaskowitz’s 8. Armee, which was holding a thin screening line along the Bzura river. The Poles inflicted considerable losses on the Germans, killing 1,500 and capturing 3,000 in the initial push. To avoid a serious reverse, Blaskowitz was compelled to completely suspend his army’s advance on Warsaw and divert all his troops to come to the rescue of the 30. Division. Nonetheless, the Germans were thrown back southwards some 20 kilometres.
Von Rundstedt and his Chief-of-Staff Generalleutnant Erich von Manstein initially underestimated the Polish advance and judged it a problem the 8. Army should solve by itself. However, on 11 September, realising they had a major crisis on their hands, they changed their mind and decided to redirect the main force of the 10. Armee plus army group reserves and most of the aircraft from Luftflotte 4 towards the Bzura. Thus reinforced, the Germans managed to hold the Poles in a vicious battle on a narrow front along the river. Raging for a full ten days, it developed into the largest, longest and single most-important battle of the campaign.
However, as a direct result of this Polish counter-offensive, the 4. Panzer-Division and the Leibstandarte-SS were withdrawn from Warsaw and sent westward to help stave off the threat. Their positions were taken over by the 31. Infanterie-Division (Generalleutnant Rudolf Kämpfe), one of the follow-up divisions of the XVI. Armeekorps, the lead regiment of which – Infanterie-Regiment 82 – arrived in front of Warsaw on the 11th. Its troops were fatigued by long days of marching in hot weather and already weakened by earlier battles, so they were ordered for the time being to refrain from a direct attack on the city and just maintain siege positions. In this sense the attempt to buy time for Warsaw was a success. However, the aerial attacks on the city continued. On September 10, nicknamed `Bloody Sunday’, there were more than 70 German bombers above Warsaw and 17 consecutive bombing raids.
Meanwhile, there had been an organisational change on the Polish side. On September 8, the day of the first German assault, Marshal Smigly-Rydz had ordered the creation of an improvised Warsaw Army (Armia Warszawa) under Lieutenant-General Juliusz Rommel. Until then the commander of the Lodz Army on the border, Rommel had got separated from his operational forces and had just arrived in Warsaw with his staff (some critics say he more or less abandoned his army and defected to the capital). From his headquarters at Brest-Litovsk, Smigly-Rydz sent him a signed order to `defend the city as long as ammunition and food lasts, to hold as many of the enemy forces as possible’.
The newly-created army was composed of the forces defending Warsaw (under General Czuma); the garrison of Modlin Fortress – a 19th-century citadel located at the junction of the Vistula and the Narew rivers some 30 kilometres north of the capital and blocking a main approach to it (under Brigadier-General Wiktor Thommée) – as well as all Polish units defending the Narew and Vistula riverlines north-east and south of Warsaw. General Czuma continued as the commander of the Warsaw Defence Force, which he split into two sectors, one on each side of the Vistula: East (Praga) under LieutenantColonel Julian Janowski and West under Colonel Marian Porwit.
Meanwhile, the defenders of the city were joined by various units of the routed Prusy Army, notably the 44th Infantry Division (Colonel Eugeniusz Zongollowicz), a half-complete reserve formation made up of regiments of the Border Defence Corps (Korpus Ochrony Pogranicza – KOP), which had been dispersed by the 1. Panzer-Division at Belchatow and had been ordered to head to Warsaw.
Other stray units came from the defeated Lodz Army, notably the 4th Battalion of the 30th Infantry Regiment from the 10th Division under Major Bronislaw Kaminski, which arrived on the 10th and took up defensive positions in Plackowka and Mlociny in north-western Warsaw.
In addition, several new units were created in the capital itself out of reserve centres of two Warsaw-based formations. Reservists from the 8th Infantry Division formed the 360th Regiment under Lieutenant-Colonel Jakub Chmura. It comprised five battalions which would be deployed at various points in the city’s defensive lines. The rear-echelon battalion of the 36th `Academic Legion’ Infantry Regiment, a unit made up mostly of university students, served as a core of the 336th Regiment. Split onto two separate units, the 1st and 2nd `Defenders of Praga’ Regiments under Colonels Stanislaw Milian and Stefan Kotowski respectively, it helped defend the Praga sector on the east bank of the Vistula.
During all this time, Stefan Starzynski, the Civilian Commissar of Warsaw, was a tower of strength in the besieged city. His daily radio speeches were crucial in keeping the morale of both soldiers and civilians high. Starzynski commanded the distribution of food, water and supplies as well as the firefighting brigades. Assisted by his Deputy, Julian Kulski, he also managed to organise shelter for almost all civilian refugees from other parts of Poland and for people whose houses had been destroyed by German bombing.
Meanwhile a new threat to Warsaw was developing from the north-east, this time coming from Heeresgruppe Nord. On September 10, von Küchler’s 3. Armee had broken through the Polish lines along the Narew river and started its march southwards, aiming to cut off Warsaw from the east. Its I. Armeekorps under Generalleutnant Walter Petzel crossed the Bug at Wyszkow on the 11th and was now rapidly approaching the capital.
As this new menace got near, the city’s garrison again received welcome reinforcements in the form of units from the Modlin Army pushed back by the German advance. The remnants of the 5th Infantry Division under Major-General Juliusz Zulauf reached Warsaw on the 14th, re-uniting with the division’s own 40th `Children of Lwow’ Regiment. With Zulauf’s force came the 21st `Children of Warsaw’ Regiment, commanded by Colonel Stanislaw Sosabowski (of later Battle of Arnhem fame), which had got separated from its parent 8th Division on the third day of the invasion and had fought its way back from the north by itself. The battered remains of the 20th Infantry Division under Colonel Wilhelm Andrzej Lawisz. Liszka arrived from Mlawa on the 15th. All new arrivals were incorporated into the Warsaw Army and assigned to the defence of Praga on the east bank, General Zulauf taking over command of the East sector from Lieutenant-Colonel Janowski.
They had just made it in time for on that same day – September 15 – the 61. Infanterie-Division (Generalleutnant Siegfried Hänicke), leading element of the I. Armeekorps, reached the eastern outskirts of Warsaw. The Germans must have been unaware of the exact Polish positions in this part of the city, for a large column of troops came marching into Grochow, the south-eastern working-class borough of Praga, along Aleja Jerzego Waszyngtona (Washington Avenue), straight at the positions of Sosabowski’s 21st Regiment. His 1st Battalion opened up a hurricane of fire that took the enemy column completely by surprise. Stalled, the Germans tried to deploy into assault formations, bringing direct artillery fire and tanks to bear. Polish anti-tank guns positioned down the avenue knocked out two of the panzers but the Germans nonetheless managed to gain a foothold in eastern Grochow, wiping out a platoon of Polish riflemen that was covering the withdrawal of their company. However, the German advance was held at the next street and by 7 p. m. the attack had been repulsed. Sosabowski’s command tallied a loss of 320 men killed, wounded or missing.
The following day, September 16, another three of Küchler’s infantry divisions arrived at the eastern gates of Warsaw: the 11. Infanterie-Division (Generalleutnant Max Bock), the 32. Infanterie-Division (Generalleutnant Nikolaus von Falkenhorst) and the 217. Infanterie-Division (Generalmajor Richard Baltzer), the latter two both of the II. Armeekorps. Together with the 61. Division, they now formed an unbreakable cordon around Warsaw east of the Vistula. With the 31. Division of the 8. Armee enclosing much of the city on its western side, only a broad strip of land along the Vistula towards the Kampinos Forest in the north-west and the Modlin Fortress in the north now remained in Polish hands. Though not yet completely encircled, Warsaw was effectively under siege.
That morning, Sosabowski’s men were surprised to see an open car flying a large white flag, followed by two tanks with the crews standing up in the open turret, slowly coming down Washington Avenue towards the barricade on Grochow Street. It was a party of truce. The German parliamentaire, Major Kiewitz, commander of the I. Bataillon of Infanterie-Regiment 151 of the 61. Division, handed Sosabowski a letter addressed `to the Officer Commanding Warsaw’ and containing a demand for the surrender of the city. Sosabowski sent the note to General Rommel’s headquarters and within an hour the answer came back that the Army Commander would neither talk with, nor see, the enemy emissary.
Within two hours after Major Kiewitz returned to his lines, a furious artillery bombardment fell on the Polish positions. An hour later, at 5 p. m., the 11. Infanterie-Division launched an assault against Sosabowski’s regiment. Again, the Poles waited until the attackers had approached within 100 metres of their positions before opening a withering fire with rifles, machine guns and mortars. After three hours of bitter fighting, the assault was repulsed with heavy losses to the Germans, the attacking unit – Infanterie-Regiment 23 commanded by Oberst Johann-Georg Richert – being practically annihilated. A similar thing happened when Infanterie-Regiment 96 of the 32. Division attempted to enter Brodno in northern Praga. It was met with intense artillery and mortar fire and thrown back with heavy casualties, losing 150 men.
Meanwhile the battle for Poland was continuing. Well to the east of Warsaw, on Heeresgruppe Nord’s far left wing, von Kluge’s 4. Armee was speedily moving south. Its XIX. Armeekorps, under General der Panzertruppe Heinz Guderian, dashing forward far in advance of the infantry formations, had crossed the Narew at Wizna and, moving on east of the Bug, reached BrestLitovsk on September 14, capturing the citadel on the 16th.
Then, on September 17, Poland received a further shock when the Soviet Red Army, following the secret protocol of the German-Russian non-aggression pact signed in Moscow just three weeks earlier (August 23), entered the country from the east. With the Poles having no forces other than border guard troops to oppose this move, and many of these initially even being uncertain over whether to welcome or fight the new invaders, the Soviets rapidly occupied eastern Poland. Now under attack from all sides by two different countries, Poland was fighting a losing battle. Realising that defence had become impossible, Marshal Smigly-Rydz issued orders for all Polish forces to retreat towards Romania and avoid fighting the Soviet aggressors. The Polish government and High Command crossed into Romania, where they were interned.
On September 18 Guderian’s panzer corps made contact with armoured units of the 14. Armee of Heeresgruppe Süd at Wlodawa on the Bug river, 200 kilometres south-east of Warsaw, thus completing the planned giant pincer movement and the encirclement of virtually all Polish forces. The Germans soon met up with the Soviets, at Brest-Litovsk and elsewhere, beginning an uneasy alliance that would last just 22 months. (To their chagrin, they had to abandon some of the territory already won to the Russians, retiring to the pre-arranged boundary line.) Meanwhile, due west of Warsaw, the battle of attrition on the Bzura had reached its inevitable conclusion. Having halted the Polish attacks, the 8. Armee launched its own attack across the river. With the armoured and motorised troops from the 10. Armee rushing up from the south-east and east, and forces from the 4. Armee from Heeresgruppe Nord closing in from the north and north-west, the Germans soon managed to encircle the very considerable Polish forces in a large pocket around the town of Kutno. The battle of annihilation raged for a week but by September 19 it was all over and an estimated 170,000 Polish troops surrendered.
However, large fragments of the Poznan and Pomorze Armies managed to break through the German encirclement. Desperately fighting their way through the Kampinos Forest, they succeeded in reaching the Warsaw-Modlin perimeter, mostly around September 19 and 20, considerably reinforcing the latter’s defensive strength. From the Poznan Army came the bulk of the 25th Infantry Division (General Franciszek Alter) and two cavalry brigades (the Wielkopolska under Brigadier-General Roman Abraham and the Podolska under Colonel Leon Strzelecki); 431 survivors of the 14th Cavalry Ulan Regiment under Colonel Edward Godlewski, plus smatterings from three more infantry divisions, the 14th, 17th and 26th. The Pomorze Army brought in 1,500 survivors from the 15th Infantry Division (General Zdzislaw Przyjalkowski), the Pomorze Cavalry Brigade (Colonel Adam Bogoria-Zakrewski) and what little remained of the 4th and 16th Divisions. General Kutrzeba of the Poznan Army, who reached Warsaw on the 16th, was made deputy commander of Warsaw under General Rommel. General Bortnowski of the Pomorze Army had been heavily wounded on the Bzura and was captured on the 21st.
Two-thousand men of the 13th Division’s 43rd `Bayonne Legion’ Regiment (Lieutenant-Colonel Franciszek Zbigniew Kubicki), survivors of the rout against the XVI. Armeekorps on September 7, tried to fight their way towards besieged Warsaw, but were stopped by the 11. Infanterie-Division during a night battle in Falenica, a south-eastern suburb of Warsaw, on September 19. As a result, only a few hundred men of the division managed to reach the capital.
With these reinforcements – the last to come in – the Polish forces defending Warsaw had risen to approximately 100,000 soldiers.
Warsaw West (under Colonel Porwit) was divided into three subordinate zones:
In sub-sector North were the 60th Regiment (25th Division), the 4th Battalion of the 30th Regiment (10th Division), the 59th and 61st Regiments (15th Division) and the 1st Battalion of the 144th Infantry (44th Division) defending Bielany, Mlociny, Zoliborz, Powazki and Kolo, with the 3rd Battalion of the 26th Regiment (5th Division) holding an outer position near Wawrzyszew.
In sub-sector West were the 40th Regiment (5th Division) and the 2nd Battalion of the 41st Regiment (29th Division) holding Wola, Ochota and Rakowiec, with the 1st and 5th Battalions of the 360th Regiment and a Volunteer Workers Battalion defending outer positions at Blizne and Gorce Okulicki.
In sub-sector South, charged with the defence of Mokotow, Czernieskow and Sierkierki, were a Volunteer Workers Battalion, remnants of the 4th Battalion of the 21st Regiment, the 1st Hunters Battalion and the 2nd and 3rd Battalions of the 360th Regiment.
Warsaw East (under General Zulauf) was divided into two zones:
In sub-sector North were the 78th, 79th and 80th Regiments of the 20th Division (Colonel Lawisz-Liszka), with the 1st Battalion of the 43rd Regiment (13th Division) attached, manning positions in Brodno, Pelcowizna and Elsnerow. In sub-sector South (commanded by Colonel Zongollowicz of the 44th Division) were the 26th Regiment (5th Division) defending the easternmost borough of Utrata; Sosabowski’s 21st Regiment (8th Division) guarding Grochow in the south-east, and the two `Defenders of Praga’ Regiments holding Saska Kepa and Goclaw in the south.
In general reserve were the 29th Regiment (25th Division), 56th and 62nd Regiments (15th Division), and the three cavalry brigades (the latter now amalgamated into a Combined Cavalry Brigade under Brigadier-General Graham), plus groups of light artillery and a heavy artillery group.
After the battle of the Bzura had ended, several of the German divisions from that battle rushed eastwards to tighten the ring around the Warsaw-Modlin perimeter. The XI. Armeekorps – with the 18. Infanterie-Division (Generalmajor Friedrich-Carl Cranz), 24. Infanterie-Division (Generalleutnant Friedrich Olbricht) and 19. Infanterie-Division (Generalleutnant Günther Schwantes) – progressively filled the line on the left of the 31. Division. The Leibstandarte-SS returned to take up positions between Warsaw and Modlin, Hitler having ordained that his elite SS force should be present to take its share of the glory of the upcoming final victory.
On the 22nd, the 3. (leichte) Division (Generalmajor Adolf Kuntzen) inserted itself to the right of the 31. Division, along the south side of the perimeter, only to be relieved two days later by two divisions from the XIII. Armeekorps, which had come marching up from the south-west and south: the 10. Infanterie-Division (Generalleutnant Conrad von Cochenhausen) and the 46. Infanterie-Division (Generalleutnant Paul von Hase).
Warsaw 1939 III
Map of the Battle of Warsaw. Germans-red, Poles-blue.
By September 19 1939 – the day Hitler made his triumphal entry into Danzig – the campaign in Poland was essentially over. The war of movement had come to an end and the bulk of the Polish armies had been destroyed. Except for a few isolated pockets of resistance remaining on the Soviet border and on the Baltic coast, only Warsaw and Modlin were still holding out. The perimeter that linked the two strongholds was completely surrounded and – as the German General Staff told Hitler – their fall was now merely a matter of time.
In mid-September, Hitler had personally intervened in the conduct of the campaign, not for military but for political reasons. Knowing the Soviets would soon invade Poland from the east, and that the agreed partition line between German and Soviet territory ran along the Vistula, he wished to make absolutely sure that Warsaw would fall before the Russians reached it, which was planned to happen on October 3. He therefore told his surprised generals that he wanted the city captured by September 30 at the latest. Rather than take it by a direct assault, he now chose to lay siege to the city and blast it into submission. He ordered von Rundstedt to assemble all his army group’s heavy artillery and mortars around the city and instructed Hermann Göring, the C-in-C of the Luftwaffe, to embark on a ruthless and all-out area bombing of the metropolis (Operation `Wasserkante’).
The renewed aerial offensive began on the 13th when 183 Stukas and He 111s from Löhr’s Luftflotte 4 dropped their loads on the north-western part of Warsaw. The Jewish quarters were especially hard hit. The attacks continued on a daily basis, reaching a new crescendo on the 17th. Although the orders instructed the pilots to concentrate on strategic and military targets, such as the city’s water, gas and electricity works, military barracks, ammunition dumps, artillery positions and command centres (specifically the Citadel, the War Ministry and the General Inspectorate of the Army) and traffic hubs, in actuality the bombers and dive-bombers engaged in an indiscriminate area bombing, which by necessity led to massive collateral damage and thousands of civilian casualties.
At the same time, German heavy and medium artillery, drawn up all around Warsaw under overall command of Generalmajor Johannes Zuckertort, began a ceaseless bombardment of the city, which added considerably to the damage and casualties. Every move in the Polish front line brought down a salvo of shells and mortar bombs and every crossroads was subjected to periods of concentrated fire. The heavy artillery included big railway guns, large-calibre siege guns and heavy mortars, one round of which could pulverise entire blocks of buildings. The civilian population lived permanently in a twilight of dust, acrid smoke and gloom of underground shelters.
The atmosphere in the beleaguered city had now turned decidedly bleak. All the shops were closed, with windows barred. No street was without damage. Broken water mains spouted fountains into the air and the smell of bust sewage pipes pervaded every corner. Many buildings had their windows shattered and walls scarred with shrapnel. Rescue workers were digging in smoking ruins, searching for survivors. Most of the inhabitants looked shabby and tired, many of them with blood-soaked bandages and the light of desperation in their eyes. Every cellar, subway, ditch and trench had its civilian occupants. Even in the front line there were women and children who could not be sent away. The troops shared out their food and water but it was a great problem to produce enough for all. Hospitals overflowed with wounded and thousands lay on blankets on stone floors waiting for attention from overworked doctors. Drugs and other medical supplies were getting scarce. With water mains hit so often that it was impossible to get water, fires blazed throughout the night, providing markers for the enemy pilots. Buildings collapsed without warning and burning gas mains lit up the debris-littered streets.
In the late afternoon of the 16th – shortly after General Rommel had refused the German demand for surrender and Colonel Sosabowski had sent back the German parliamentaire to his own lines – 12 Heinkel He 111s from I./KG4 dropped a million leaflets over Warsaw calling upon the civilian population to evacuate the city towards the east within 12 hours `in order to prevent useless bloodshed and the destruction of the city’. Loudspeaker vans, from positions close to the front line, blared out the same message.
The dropping of leaflets was repeated on the 18th, 19th, 22nd and 24th. The only result of the whole action was an agreement that enabled the entire diplomatic corps and all foreign nationals to leave the city. The 178 diplomats and 1,200 other foreigners crossed the lines at Marki, north-east of Warsaw, during a temporary truce on the morning of the 21st – an event that German propaganda exploited to the full to demonstrate Germany’s goodwill.
Meanwhile, there were outbursts of fierce fighting, mostly at night and mainly in the sector on the east bank of the Vistula. During the day, German machine guns sprayed the forward areas; the Polish guns mostly kept silent, unless they were certain of hitting a target, and many of the men slept in order to be fresh for night-fighting. Nearly every night, the Poles launched company-sized sallies against the German lines, or even regiment-sized break-out attempts to the east. On the 20th, the 11. Infanterie-Division repulsed one such attack, taking 100 prisoners.
On September 22 forces of the 18. and 24. Infanterie-Division, attacking eastwards from the Kampinos Forest, reached the Vistula between Warsaw and Modlin, thereby cutting the last remaining lines of communication between the two strongholds and splitting the Polish perimeter into two separate cauldrons. Warsaw was now truly surrounded by a continuous ring of German troops.
September 22 was also notable for a curious combat incident that happened on the German front line at Praga in eastern Warsaw. It involved Generaloberst Werner von Fritsch, the former Oberbefehlshaber des Heeres (Commander-in-Chief of the Army), who was killed by a Polish sniper while openly moving about in the forward areas of the 61. Division. Fritsch had been relieved of his post by Hitler in February 1938, the victim of false accusations of homosexuality levelled against him in the so-called Blom-Fritsch Affair. Though later cleared of all blame, his reputation and honour were irretrievably stained and it is pretty certain that Fritsch chose to inspect the Warsaw front lines, where he had no real business, in order to seek death deliberately.
Meanwhile, everything was being readied for the final German assault on the besieged city. By now the forces surrounding Warsaw numbered eight divisions and some 175,000 soldiers. The plan was for a concentric attack by all divisions, with the main attack to be delivered by those of the XI. and XIII. Armeekorps from the west. On September 24, all German units, including those of the I. and II. Armeekorps of the 3. Armee east of the Vistula, were put under command of Blaskowitz’s 8. Armee, this to ensure good co-ordination in the forthcoming assault. Generalmajor Wolfram von Richthofen, the Fliegerführer z. b. V. in Luftflotte 4 (responsible for co-ordinating Stuka and other close-support operations), was put in overall command of the air formations deployed in the attack.
The final assault began on September 25 – `Black Monday’ as it came to be known by the people of Warsaw. As part of the offensive, the Luftwaffe launched its largest bombing raid to date. Starting at 8 a. m., some 370 aircraft from Luftflotte 1 – 240 Stukas from five different Geschwader (StG 51, 76 and 77, and LG1 and 2), 100 Dornier Do 17 bombers from KG77 and 30 Junkers Ju-52 transport planes from IV./Kampfgeschwader z. b. V. 1 – unloaded an endless stream of bombs and incendiaries on the city. The Stukas and Dorniers could only drop bombs, not incendiaries, and Heinkels 111 were not available, so the Ju 52s were used to drop the phosphor bombs, both from their bomb racks and with dispatchers manually shoving the ordnance out of the open cargo doors. Rotating from their bases, with each crew flying three or four sorties, the 370 aircraft dropped a total of 500 tons of high-explosive bombs and 72 tons of incendiaries on the city. Warsaw became an inferno. The entire centre was badly damaged. In parts it was hardly possible to recognise streets as all the landmarks disappeared under the rubble. Columns of black smoke rose high above the city.
For the Germans the air operation was a mixed success. The few remaining Polish anti-aircraft guns, firing off their last rounds, managed to shoot down two of the slow-moving Junkers. As the day went on, smoke from fires and large clouds of dust obscured targets and greatly reduced accuracy. As a result, a significant number of the bombs landed on German infantry positions in the north-west suburbs, leading to acrimonious discussions between Luftwaffe and Army commanders.
Among those observing the bombing that day was Hitler himself. Ever since September 4, the Führer and his Führerhauptquartier retinue had been touring the Polish battleground, visiting command posts, meeting troops, inspecting destroyed Polish materiel and viewing battered fortifications. On the 22nd he had already observed besieged Warsaw from the balcony of the tower of a race and sports stadium overlooking Praga in the 3. Armee sector, but today his schedule included a visit to the 8. Armee west of the city, timed to coincide with the start of the final assault and the culmination of the aerial and artillery bombardment of the beleaguered city. Using trench binoculars, Hitler and his entourage observed the bombing and shelling, watching the columns of smoke billowing up from the built-up area.
Meanwhile, the German land assault was underway. Starting at dawn, five infantry divisions assailed the western half of the city – anti-clockwise from north to south the 18. and 19. Infanterie-Division (under XI. Armeekorps) and the 31., 10. and 46. Infanterie-Division (under XIII. Armeekorps). The offensive was supported by 70 batteries of field artillery, 80 batteries of heavy artillery and the entire available Stuka and closesupport capability of Luftflotten 1 and 4.
The initial attacks focused on capturing the various 19th-century forts that ringed the city and formed the outer core of the Polish defences. Each was to be tackled by assault teams of infantry and engineers equipped with ladders, pontoons, flame-throwers and explosive charges. In the 18. Division sector, teams from Infanterie-Regiment 51 and Pionier-Bataillon 48 managed to take Fort I (Mlociny) but failed to take Fort II (Wawrzyszew). In the 19. Division zone, Infanterie-Regiment 74 succeeded in taking possession of Fort III (Blizne) but the attack against Fort IIa (Babice) by Infanterie-Regiment 73 was repulsed with heavy casualties. In the 10. Division area, after a two-hour fight, assault teams from Infanterie-Regiment 20 and Pionier-Bataillon 10 seized Fort Mokotow, one of the city’s inner ring of fortifications, taking 269 prisoners. Further to the right, in the 46. Division sector, InfanterieRegiment 42 and Pionier-Bataillon 62, after an initial setback, captured Fort Pilsudski, another of the inner forts.
Although four key forts had now been captured, the Germans were unable to push on across the open ground beyond and nowhere the attacking forces made much headway. By evening all attacks were halted, to be resumed the following morning. During the night, the Polish forces counter-attacked and managed to destroy several German outposts, especially in Mokotow in the south and Praga in the east.
The story was much the same on the 26th. Again three of the forts were taken. The 18. Division in its second attempt managed to capture Fort II and the 19. Division grabbed hold of Fort IIa. In the 46. Division zone, Infanterie-Regiment 72 together with assault engineers of Pionier-Bataillon 88, after a bitter and prolonged fight, took possession of Fort IX (Dabrowskiego) at Czerniakow, taking 475 prisoners. Everywhere, the Polish garrison fought back with great courage and determination, and German progress remained slow, gains being measured in just a few hundred metres. Casualties were heavy on both sides.
Despite having held off and slowed down the first blows of the offensive, the situation for the Polish commanders in Warsaw was now clearly and utterly hopeless. Although the garrison was still sufficiently strong in manpower to defend the city for several more weeks, it was only a question of time before their ammunition, rations and supplies would run out. Worse, the plight of the capital’s civilian population had become completely intolerable. The constant bombardment had resulted in heavy and mounting casualties. The destruction of the waterworks had caused a lack of both drinking water and water with which to extinguish the many fires raging all over the city. There was a lack of food and medical supplies and the hospitals were overtaxed by thousands of wounded soldiers and civilians. Irrespective of all that, strategically, the lack of support from the Western Allies, and the Soviet Union’s entry into the war, had made any further defence of the city completely pointless.
In the late afternoon of the 26th General Rommel called a `council of defence’ to discuss the situation. Among those attending were Mayor Starzynski and Generals Kutrzeba, Czuma, Zulauf, Alter and Abraham. After listening to each participant’s views, Rommel announced his decision to open surrender negotiations with the Germans. All agreed and General Kutrzeba was appointed head of the parliamentary delegation.
Early on the morning of September 27 Kutrzeba and Colonel Aleksander Praglowski, Rommel’s Chief-of-Staff, crossed the German lines to begin the capitulation talks. At 9.30 a. m. they met with General Blaskowitz. Many German units, as soon as news of the surrender talks reached them, immediately stopped their attack operations. At noon a cease-fire agreement was signed and all fighting halted.
The formal capitulation was signed by General Kutrzeba at 1.15 p. m. the following day (September 28) in the 8. Armee’s command bus parked at the Skoda engine works at Rakowiec in south-western Warsaw. The surrender terms stipulated the following:
On September 29 all Polish units were to lay down their arms in specified areas; disarmed units were to gather in indicated areas; barricades, road-blocks and trenches on the main roads were to be destroyed and mines removed; units were to march out of Warsaw along certain routes according to a programme, under their own officers; privates and NCOs were to be released from prisoner of war camps and returned home after a few days; officers were to go to POW camps but to retain their sabres; officers not surrendering would, on capture, be treated as criminals and not accorded rights under the Geneva Convention; and troops were to carry enough food for three days.
Several of the Polish units declined to put down their weapons and stop firing, and their commanding officers had to be visited by Generals Czuma and Rommel personally. Many units chose to hide or destroy their heavy armament rather than surrender it. The few remaining 7-TP tanks were destroyed by their crews. (Some of the hidden war material would later be used during the Warsaw Uprising of August 1944). At 6 p.m. on September 29 the evacuation of Polish forces to German prisoner of war camps started. It continued all day on the 30th. The following day, October 1, German units entered the city. The battle for Warsaw was over.
Hohentwiel Fortress
The fortress resisted five Imperial sieges in the Thirty Years’ War, under the command of Konrad Widerholt between 1634 and 1648. The effect was that Württemberg remained Protestant, while most of the surrounding areas returned to catholicism in the Counterreformation.
The mountaintop fortress of Hohentweil under attack in October 1641.
1643 illustration of Festung Hohentwiel (Hohentwiel Fortress), near modern Singen, Germany.
The only feasible way from Alsace for an army is around the southern end of the Black Forest where the route divided. One branch ran north east to the upper reaches of the Danube around the Württemberg enclave of Tuttlingen and thence to Bavaria. This route was overlooked by the duke’s impregnable castle of Hohentwiel perched on an extinct volcano 263 metres above the surrounding plain. The other branch ran east through the towns of Überlingen, Lindau and Radolfzell along the northern shore of Lake Constance to the Bregenzer Klause, the pass giving access to the Tirol and Valtellina. The area between the lake, the Danube and the Bavarian frontier was studded with walled imperial cities, notably Ravensburg, Kempten, Memmingen, Ulm and Augsburg. The emperor was rarely able to devote significant resources to defending these positions, despite a strategic importance that grew with French intervention in 1635. Defence was left largely to local militia, especially in Villingen and the imperial city of Rottweil which guarded the back door from Württemberg through the Black Forest to Breisach.
Sweden Loses Southern Germany
Against this the Habsburg loss of 2,000 seemed slight and enabled them to claim a major triumph. Following a long succession of defeats, Nördlingen appeared to be vindication for Wallenstein’s murder and cemented the influence of Gallas and Piccolomini by associating them with victory. As at Breitenfeld, the scale was magnified by the demoralization of the enemy army. News of the defeat reached Frankfurt on 12 September along with a flood of refugees. The remaining Heilbronn delegates fled the next day. Oxenstierna tried to improvise a new line of defence along the Main to contain the defeat to the south. No one cooperated. Johann Georg failed to launch the requested diversionary attack against Bohemia, while Duke Georg refused to move south to hold the middle section of the river. Wilhelm of Weimar abandoned Franconia and fell back with 4,000 men to his base at Erfurt, exposing the upper Main to Piccolomini and Isolano who approached with 13,000 troops from Nördlingen and north-west Bohemia. Piccolomini took Schweinfurt, while Isolano destroyed the Suhl arms workshops that had supplied most of the Swedes’ small arms and munitions since 1631. Isolano and 6,000 Croats then swept down the Main in November, rampaging into the Hessian possession of Hersfeld.
The main imperial army moved west, bypassing Ulm to enter Stuttgart on 19 September. Duke Eberhard III fled to Switzerland and the last Württemberg fort surrendered in November. Only the isolated Hohentwiel on the upper Danube held out. While the Imperialists made themselves at home, the Spanish continued westwards and the Bavarians, now under the command of Werth, captured Heidelberg on 19 November, though its castle remained defiant. Riding ahead, Werth’s cavalry harried the remnants of Bernhard’s army as it fled to Frankfurt. The commanders of Sweden’s Rhine army refused to join him, on the ground this would spread demoralization to their own troops. Birkenfeld abandoned Heilbronn and retreated to the Kehl bridgehead opposite Strasbourg. His hopes of replacing Bernhard were dashed by Oxenstierna, who felt there was no realistic alternative to the defeated general. The death of Count Salm-Kyrburg to plague on 16 October enabled Bernhard to incorporate the former Alsatian units into his command.
Leaving Werth and Duke Charles to complete the conquest of the Lower Palatinate, Fernando continued his march down the Rhine, crossing at Cologne on 16 October to reach Brussels nineteen days later. Meanwhile, Philipp Count Mansfeld collected the Westphalians at Andernach, allegedly accompanied by a hundred coach-loads of Catholic lords and clergy eager to recover their property. As Philipp marched south, it looked as if Bernhard would be crushed between his hammer and Gallas’s anvil.
The situation mirrored that of 1631, only this time Protestant areas were the ones affected as government collapsed in the wake of the headlong flight of Sweden’s German collaborators. Suffering was also more general because the plague hindered the harvest, causing widespread hardship. There were signs that Emperor Ferdinand had learned the lessons of 1629 as efforts were made to restrain over-zealous Catholics. He intervened to stop Bishop Hatzfeldt punishing the Franconian knights for collaborating with the Swedes and the Jesuits were refused permission to take over Württemberg’s university at Tübingen. Political considerations undoubtedly influenced this, since Vienna did not want to jeopardize promising negotiations with Saxony. Archduke Ferdinand’s presence was another moderating factor. However, it often proved impossible to stop officers and administrators exploiting the situation, either to enrich themselves or to find cash for the perennially underpaid imperial army. Catholic government resumed relatively quickly in Würzburg despite the Swedish garrison holding out on the Marienberg and in Königshofen until January and December 1635 respectively.
Oxenstierna worked feverishly to salvage what he could of the situation, reconvening the Heilbronn League congress at Worms on 2 December. Though some members were willing to fight on, most sought a way out through Saxon mediation. Saxon and Darmstadt envoys agreed draft peace terms, known as the Pirna Note, on 24 November. Oxenstierna tried to stem desertion by publishing what he could discover of the terms, notably the suggestion of 1627 as a new normative year that would secure many of the Catholic gains.
Partisan Leaders
The horrendous losses of the 1638 Rhine campaign were a major factor behind this decline. Bernhard of Weimar was determined to achieve the objective set the year before and establish a firm foothold for France east of the river. This time he prepared thoroughly. Since he had wintered in Mömpelgard and the bishopric of Basel, he was already close to the stretch of the Rhine along the Swiss frontier to Lake Constance. This route offered an alternative to the previous year’s attempt to punch directly across the Black Forest. Though he had been joined in person by Rohan, who had escaped from the Valtellina, he still had few troops. Savelli’s Imperialists held Rheinfelden with 500 men, with other garrisons in Waldshut, Freiburg and Philippsburg and Reinach’s regiment in Breisach. These posts would have to be taken if the river was to be secured. He also needed a base beyond the Black Forest to tap the richer resources of Württemberg and the Danube valley.
Fortunately, Bernhard had an excellent spy network and knew how weak his opponents were. He also had the services of Colonel Erlach, a veteran of Dutch service who had been wounded at White Mountain and subsequently served Mansfeld and Sweden until 1627. Since then he had commanded the militia of his homeland, the Protestant canton of Bern. He joined Bernhard’s army in September 1637, although he did not leave Bernese service until the following May. His contacts with the canton’s patriciate ensured a good flow of supplies to Bernhard’s army.
Erlach also opened negotiations with Major Widerhold, a Hessian who was the Württemberg militia’s drill instructor and commandant of the Hohentwiel, the duchy’s only fortress still holding out against the emperor. Though he has now faded from the local popular consciousness, Widerhold occupied a prominent place in Swabian patriotic folklore into the twentieth century. He exemplifies the partisan leaders who played an increasingly important role as the rapid escalation of the conflict left numerous isolated garrisons scattered across the Empire. These sustained themselves by raiding and acted as potential bases should friendly forces return to their area. The Swedes in Benfeld, Ruischenberg’s Imperialists in Wolfenbüttel and Ramsay’s Bernhardines in Hanau are three examples encountered already. Others included the Hessians in Lippstadt under the Huguenot refugee Baron St André and his subordinate, Jacques Mercier from Mömpelgard, known as Little Jacob, who rose through the ranks of Hungarian, Bohemian, Russian and Dutch service. Both were contemporary celebrities incorporated by Grimmelshausen into his novel. A counterpart in Habsburg service was the Swiss patrician Franz Peter König, ennobled in 1624 as von Mohr, who distinguished himself in skirmishes around Lake Constance in the early 1630s. As these background sketches indicate, such men generally came from relatively humble backgrounds and made reputations and fortunes through daring exploits. They never rose to command armies and were often difficult to control. König was dismissed after becoming embroiled in a feud with the highly disagreeable Wolfgang Rudolf von Ossa, Habsburg military commissioner for south-west Germany.
Widerhold acted nominally in the name of Duke Eberhard III of Württemberg, but pursued his own agenda. Mixing terror with benevolence, he spared the immediate vicinity of the Hohentwiel and concentrated on longer-range raids against Catholic communities, forcing 56 villages, monasteries and hamlets to provision his garrison that rose to 1,058 men and 61 guns by the end of 1638. He was well-supplied with intelligence from friendly villagers who often participated in his plundering expeditions. He returned the favour on his death, leaving a large endowment for the local poor. His exploits became legendary. Once he caught the bishop of Konstanz out hunting and stole his horse and silver, and later he netted 20,000 talers by capturing the local imperial war chest in Bahlingen.
Blockaded since Nördlingen, Widerhold agreed to remain neutral after February 1636 because of renewed talks to include Württemberg in the Prague amnesty. Ferdinand III made surrender a condition for restoring Eberhard III in 1637, but Widerhold ignored ducal orders to comply and declared for Bernhard in February 1638. He remained a constant thorn in the Habsburg side, not least by raiding the Tirolean enclaves, and did not submit to ducal authority until 1650.
By draining other regions of their troops, Ferdinand III managed to collect 44,000 men in Bohemia by January 1640. Of these, only 12,400 were available as a field army under Archduke Leopold Wilhelm, reinforced by 4,100 under Hatzfeldt who had wintered in Franconia. Piccolomini was down to 13,000 in Westphalia, while the Saxons mustered 6,648, or only a quarter of their strength five years earlier. The Brandenburgers had effectively been knocked out. The Bavarians still totalled about 17,000 men, most of whom were on the Upper Rhine where there were perhaps 10,000 in total, including a few Imperialists. The rest were in winter quarters around Donauwörth and Ingolstadt. As these figures suggest, it was now very difficult to launch major operations in more than one region at a time.
His enemies were in a similar position. Banér was reduced to 10,000 effectives, while the other Swedish commanders had only enough men to hold their current positions. Banér had little choice but to evacuate Bohemia in March and fall back the way he had come the previous year to join Königsmarck at Erfurt. The units left to hold Saxony were defeated at Plauen on 20 April 1640, forcing the garrison in Chemnitz to surrender while most of the others abandoned their positions.
The challenge over the coming two years was for France and Sweden to establish a viable framework for military and political cooperation that had to include the Hessians and Guelphs, while Ferdinand pinned his hopes on frustrating this with one last effort to rally all Germans behind the Prague settlement. The emperor’s preference for negotiation was cruelly exploited by the Guelphs and Hessians who had used the winter to gather their strength and now declared their hand in May 1640. Duke Georg did this openly by sending troops to Banér, counting on Swedish help to prevent an invasion of Hildesheim. He nominally mustered 20,000, but in fact had 6,000 at Göttingen and garrisons along the Weser, plus a field force of 4,500 under Klitzing. Amalie Elisabeth acknowledged her French alliance in March, but still promised to respect the truce in Westphalia. With French agreement, Melander moved the 4,000-strong Hessian field force east to the Eichsfeld in May to reinforce Banér. Richelieu summoned de Longueville from Italy, hoping that he possessed sufficient personal authority as a duke to master the 8,000-strong Bernhardine field army. This moved back down the Rhine to join the allied concentration.
The emperor was obliged to match these moves. He still hoped to win over the Hessians and so accepted Amalie Elisabeth’s assurances. Nonetheless, Wahl, the new Cologne commander, was authorized to recover the positions her troops had seized over the last two years in breach of the truce. Hessian garrisons also became bolder, now raiding Paderborn. Piccolomini followed Melander east and joined Leopold Wilhelm at Saalfeld, south of Erfurt, on 5 May. They entrenched to block the way into Franconia. After a two-week stand-off, Banér fell back north-west into Lower Saxony, alarming the Guelphs who feared he would abandon them. Once they had promised another 5,000 men, he marched south again to Göttingen and Kassel. Leopold Wilhelm shadowed him, moving through Hersfeld to entrench again at Fritzlar in August. It was cold all year, the summer was wet and miserable and food proved hard to find. Banér’s second wife died and de Longueville fell ill, relinquishing command to Guébriant again. The Bavarian field army arrived from Ingolstadt, bringing Leopold Wilhelm back up to 25,000 men. After another four-week stand-off, Banér withdrew, allowing the archduke to advance north down the Weser to join Wahl’s 4,000 field troops. Together, they took Höxter in October, but the men were exhausted and ill-disciplined. The weather grew windy and even colder. Leopold Wilhelm retreated south to winter at Ingolstadt. Banér left 7,000 to blockade Wolfenbüttel, while the rest of his army made themselves comfortable at the expense of the Guelphs’ villagers.
Seemingly uneventful, this campaign completely shifted the war’s focus to northern Germany, transplanting the ‘little war’ of outposts from Westphalia to the Upper Rhine instead. Under Erlach’s direction, the Bernhardine garrisons operated from Breisach and the Forest Towns in conjunction with Widerhold in the Hohentwiel. The Bavarians retaliated from Philippsburg, Heidelberg and Offenburg, while the Imperialists sortied from Konstanz and Villingen. Neither side managed to spare more than 3,000 men from their fortresses, severely restricting what they could achieve. Erlach helped disrupt plans to besiege the Hohentwiel in 1640 by sending cavalry to collect the Swabian harvest. Claudia scraped together another expedition against Widerhold in 1641, but heavy snow and lack of food forced this to be abandoned in January 1642. Erlach and Widerhold scored the only success, briefly combining the following January to take Überlingen by surprise.
The Freiburg Campaign
The situation appeared promising for the emperor at the beginning of 1644. Sweden’s decision to attack Denmark at the end of the previous year removed the threat to the Habsburg hereditary lands. The forces there were reduced to 11,000 men under the rehabilitated Field Marshal Götz, allowing Ferdinand to mass 21,500 under Gallas who marched down the Elbe to help the Danes. Buoyed by their success at Tuttlingen the previous year, Mercy’s Bavarians totalled 19,640, or twice the size of France’s Army of Germany despite Mazarin spending 2 million livres to rebuild it during the winter. This was the first time since 1637 that the emperor and his allies began the year with an army large enough to go on the offensive on the Upper Rhine.
General Turenne had been recalled to command in Alsace, but his forces were too weak to fulfil Mazarin’s expectations of conquering land beyond the Black Forest. Mercy attacked instead, retaking Überlingen on 10 May, eliminating the last French gain from 1643. Having been repulsed from the Hohentwiel, he left 1,000 men to blockade Widerhold’s garrison and crossed the Black Forest to recover the areas lost in the 1638 campaign. Turenne was forced to abandon his own advance through the Forest Towns, double back into Alsace and re-cross to save Breisach. Duke Charles broke off another of his periodic negotiations and renewed raiding into Lorraine. Mazarin was obliged to redirect d’Enghien from covering Champagne to retrieve the situation on the Rhine. Despite dashing 33km a day, d’Enghien arrived too late to save Freiburg, which had surrendered to the Bavarians after a prolonged bombardment on 29 July.
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What Is Racial Bias?
June 1, 2018
Imagine this: Your friend asks you to meet him at a cafe. You arrive a few minutes early and grab a seat. Soon, you see police officers walking into the cafe, and they’re headed your way. Because you hadn’t ordered anything, the store manager called the police, and now you’re being arrested.
This scenario might sound like a nightmare, but it really happened to two African American men named Rashon Nelson and Donte Robinson. Nelson and Robinson arrived a few minutes early for their business meeting at a Starbucks in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. While they were waiting, the manager of that Starbucks asked if they needed anything. They said they didn’t. The manager asked them to purchase something or they’d have to leave. They didn’t leave. Soon after, police officers entered the store and arrested them. The manager had called the police because she thought they were planning to cause trouble. Did these men do something that caused the store manager to think they were going to cause trouble, or was it a subconscious bias that led her to call the police?
By Marco Paköeningrat (Starbucks) [CC BY-SA 2.0 (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.0)], via Wikimedia Commons
Since this incident, Starbucks publicly apologized to Nelson and Robinson and made immediate changes to their store policies, one of which is to allow customers to be in the store and use the bathroom even if they don’t plan on buying anything. In addition, Starbucks CEO Kevin Johnson shut down 8,000 Starbucks stores on May 29th so that employees could attend racial bias training. What is racial bias? It’s the way people treat other people because of how they look, where they’re from, or how they’re dressed. But can training erase bias? The short answer is no, but knowing how to identify personal bias through training is a good first step. About 175,000 Starbucks employees participated in this four-hour session, which included discussing bias, acting out scenarios that might cause a biased reaction, and practicing more warm and welcoming behaviors.
Starbucks Chairman Howard Schultz admitted that “four hours of training is not going to solve racial inequity in America,” so they’re planning to do more and hoping that their efforts help in some small way.
Have you ever experienced racial bias? If you could give Starbucks suggestions regarding how their employees should treat customers, what would you suggest?
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Map Our Shared Past in the Mediterranean
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Lesson 2.1: The Mediterranean Diet
Lesson 2.1: The Mediterranean Diet
Topic 1: Geography, Technology and Food Culture (Humans & the Environment, Humans and Other Humans)
The lesson describes the so-called Mediterranean Diet, its history and significance in the modern era, and traces the history and geography of the foods and culture of which it is made, beginning with the defining role played by olive, date, grape, legume and grain cultivation as well as sources of protein such as seafood and domesticated animals (goats, sheep, cattle). Other foods that were indigenous or introduced into the Mediterranean region such as fruits and vegetables can be introduced through further research into regional recipes. This lesson will also expand on the theme of overlapping and diverse regions of the Mediterranean and how they contributed over time to its ways of life and culture, trade within and beyond the region, and its world-historical influence.
Susan Douglass
Our Shared Past in the Mediterranean: A World History Curriculum Project for Educators
Ali Vural Ak Center for Global Islamic Studies
2014 Ali Vural Ak Center for Global Islamic Studies, George Mason University, published under Creative Commons – Attribution-No Derivatives 3.0 License
1-2 class periods if done as collective learning activity
• Students will be able to identify and describe major components of the Mediterranean diet in terms of plant and animal products, such as olives, grapes, dates, legumes, seafood, fruits such as citrus and pomegranate, and locate their areas of origin and cultivation on a map of the region.
• They will relate the history of olive, date, and grape cultivation and the neolithic beginnings of agriculture and animal husbandry.
• They will explain the modern history and nutritional significance of the Mediterranean diet (UNESCO heritage program, health benefits).
• They will describe the regions where typically Mediterranean foods grow, and how their cultivation affects modes of life in the region (agriculture and irrigation, fishing, transhumance, etc.)
• Student handout 2.1.1 The Mediterranean Diet (may also bring up slideshare at
• Student handouts 2.1.2 (olive tree); 2.1.3 (date palm); 2.1.4 (grapevine); 2.1.5 (domesticated grains & legumes); 2.1.6 (fruits & nuts); 2.1.7 (seafood); 2.1.8 (animals); Student handout 2.1.9 is for notetaking on each food.
• Internet search engine or reference books for additional research.
• Physical map of Afroeurasia or North Africa, Southwest Asia and Europe, and refer to maps on the limits of the olive, date, grapevine from handouts.
• Optional: atlas maps of vegetation, climate, elevation, rainfall, etc.
Lesson Plan Text
1. Introduce the lesson by asking students what they know about the components of a good diet, the ideal proportion of food groups, and its effects on the health of individuals. Conversely, ask students about a poor diet and its effects on our health. Show selected slides from Student Handout 2.1.1 (Original source: slides 1, 4, and 18-26 from ). Discuss why this diet became a modern concern after it was identified by Dr. Ancel Keys in 1945, and why UNESCO named it an Intangible Cultural Heritage of several Mediterranean countries in 2010, and why it came to public attention in the late 20th century (widespread understanding of public health concerns such as obesity, heart disease, hypertension, diabetes). Have students evaluate their own diets as a pre-research activity, and perhaps assign students to keep a food diary of their own intake for the week against which to compare what they learn about the Mediterranean diet.
2. Assign each pair or group of students to learn about and research a different element of the Mediterranean diet from Student handouts 2.1.2-2.1.8 and using Student Handout 2.1.9 as a research guide and reporting/presentation framework. At the end of the research period, groups will present what they learned to the group in a creative and entertaining format. Assessment and discussion focuses on how these foods make up a desireable diet (nutritional contribution of each, special characteristics) and why it has become popular as a modern way to improve health. How does the Mediterranean diet compare with students’ individual food diaries?
3. For the historical, cultural and geography component of the lesson, compare the maps on where these foods grow (e.g. limits of the olive tree, date palm), what products were derived for human benefit, and what ways of life their production entailed (dry or irrigated farming, pastoral nomadism, transhumance, associated crafts and technologies (e.g. olive & wine press, grain milling, preservation such as drying and salting, hydraulic technologies, horticultural skills like grafting of trees). Which of these components of the Mediterranean diet stimulated trade, and why (e.g. wine, olive oil for food & light, grain as staple, dates as food for caravan travel), which were suitable for short-and long-distance trade.
4. A key element of the lesson is to appreciate the importance of adjoining regions and a wider “Mediterranean.” For example, they should be able to compare the items that are native to the region and those that were brought into it, as well as those (for example, the package of domesticated grains and animals that arrived from Southwest Asia) and were then disseminated around the Mediterranean and into neighboring regions—and ultimately, around the world (through trade, such as spices, rice, cotton, coffee, then through the Columbian Exchange, and finally through globalization as a contemporary process—of which the Mediterranean Diet is an example).
5. As they learn about trade in the Mediterranean, students can refer to what they know about these foods and trace their significance in trade and the economy of the region over time, and what role they play as global food items today.
6. Optional activity: Provide samples (realia) of olives, dates, barley, various pulses, wheat, fruits, and samples of wool fiber. Alternatively, students may bring in recipes using the items they studied to be collected into a class handout. Teachers can lead a tasting of the plain items or – if there is time and willingness – plan a classroom Mediterranean potluck banquet.
7. Extension: there is a very interesting article on Russian research into the genetics of domesticated animals at See also Table of Domestication of plants and animals with original sources at
Susan Douglass, “Lesson 2.1: The Mediterranean Diet,” Our Shared Past in the Mediterranean: Teaching Modules , accessed November 18, 2018,
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How Reed Rafts are Built
The dimensions of the Viracocha rafts I and II were 18 meters long, 4.75 meters wide at the center or beam and weighed a total of 20 tons. The Viracocha III will be built with virtually the same same dimensions of the two preceding expeditions.
2.5 million reeds for each raft are needed, which are harvested on the shores of Titicaca lake, Bolivia and Peru, where reed grows in abundance. The reed is cut with a long stick with a knife at one end, usually from a row boat and then are tied in bundles with about 500 in each. These are bought to land and sun-dried for two or four weeks. The Bundles are stacked in standing position. After drying, the reed are collected and stored carefully to prevent damage from rain. The reed is usually 2cm thick at the base (before compressed) and 2m long.
The reed, then it is converted into more than 30 long cylinders or roles of 50 centimeters in diameter, which will be the length of the raft. This will form the main body of the ship. The template or base is then constructed, which serves as a mold. It is built with eucalyptus logs.
Two smaller ships are built, to add rigidity to the raft with the same technique used to manufacture the main hull. These are placed side by side on top of the mold. The cylinders are located at the top of the small ships until two separate bundles are formed.
The "Estera" or skin of the boat is the next phase and is made by weaving the best stock of the reeds making the length of the boat. This skin is wrapped around the two large bundles. A heart, or third bundle is placed in the center of the much larger bundles. Two strands of sisal rope, each 2250 feet in length is than passed around one large bundle and around the heart in one foot revolutions for the entire length. The same is done on the other side. Never does the rope wrap around the whole ship.
Attaching the two large bundles that form the gunnels or "sawi" is the last step of the hull construction. Rope is wound around each gunnel and passed through each main bundle rope along the length of the ship. The rigging is attached here and the gunnels help break the larger waves.
• The rope tightening is next. A pulley system is used to haul on the boats to get them gradually tighter. There are only two long continuous ropes, 2,250 feet on either side. The pulling begins on one end and is hauled on until taut.
• The ropes are pulled roughly thirty more times on each side, shrinking the size of the boat each time. This ingenious design now consists of two large bundles linked together by a heart that has now disappeared into the larger two bundles forming a stable, almost double hulled vessel.
• The double stern adds more stability and carrying capacity to the ship while at sea The next phase is to build up the bow and stern. Tapering cones of reeds are wedged together until a high bow and double stern are formed.
The crew and volunteers constructed the rest of the vessel. Two bipod of masts were positioned on either side of a bamboo cabin for Viracocha I and a third smaller mast was utilized further aft for the Viracocha II. The masts were held in place by "shoes" roped into the bundles. Two rudder oars were lashed to a steering platform placed above and to the rear of the bamboo cabin. The ship was rigged with natural fiber sisal rope, the same rope that holds the reed bundles together. Two center boards were positioned in the slide boxes placed in the fore and aft of the ship and aided in the tacking into the wind. Several lee-boards were placed on the lee-side of the ship and were removable. Two cotton Lateen sails were hand sewn for the first journey and four sails were used for the second.
Two rudder oars were attached to a steering platform placed above and to the rear of the bamboo cabin. The raft was handled with sisal natural fiber rope holding the same reed packages together. Two tables were placed on the side boxes at the bow and stern of the raft, which help in tacking into the wind. Various removable boards or "guaras" were placed on the leeward side of the raft. Two cotton sails Lateen style were handmade for the first trip and 4 sails were used for the second.
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Wien's law
Alternative Title: Wien’s displacement law
Wien’s law, also called Wien’s displacement law, relationship between the temperature of a blackbody (an ideal substance that emits and absorbs all frequencies of light) and the wavelength at which it emits the most light. It is named after German physicist Wilhelm Wien, who received the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1911 for discovering the law.
Wien’s law of the shift of the radiative power maximum to higher frequencies as the temperature is raised expresses in a quantitative form commonplace observations. Warm objects emit infrared radiation, which is felt by the skin; near T = 950 K a dull red glow can be observed; and the colour brightens to orange and yellow as the temperature is raised. The tungsten filament of a light bulb is T = 2,500 K hot and emits bright light, yet the peak of its spectrum at this temperature is still in the infrared, according to Wien’s law. The peak shifts to visible yellow when the temperature is T = 6,000 K, like that of the Sun’s surface.
Hellmut Fritzsche
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Shaped by the wind
Rachel Thomas
May 2002
When visitors to Paris admire the elegant tapering curves of the Eiffel Tower, they probably aren't aware that they are observing a triumph of mathematics over the forces of nature. The distinctive shape of the Tower, although beautiful, was actually designed mathematically by Eiffel to withstand the forces of the Parisian winds. Eiffel said of the tower, which stood as the world's tallest building for 41 years:
"What phenomenon did I have to give primary concern in designing the Tower? It was wind resistance. Well, I hold that the curvature of the monument's four outer edges, which is as the mathematical calculations have dictated it should be, will give a great impression of strength and beauty."
The mathematical calculations dictating the shape of the Tower have been examined in a recent article in the American Journal of Physics by Joseph Gallant.
[IMAGE: The forces on the Eiffel Tower]
The force of the wind (dF) produces a torque around the bottom left corner of the tower which is countered by the force of the Tower's weight (dW)
By balancing the maximum torque generated by the wind with the torque generated by the Tower's own weight, Gallant has derived an equation which describes the shape of the Tower:
\[ f(x)=xw(x)-\sqrt {x^2w^2(x)+f_0^2}, \]
where $f(x)$ is the half-width of the Tower at height $x$, $f_0$ is the half-width of the Tower at the ground and $w(x)$ is the maximum wind pressure the Tower can withstand at a height $x$. (This is a root of the quadratic equation describing a parabola resting against the right side of the Tower, so the curve of the Tower's right side is described by the negative arm of the parabola.)
Eiffel, experienced in designing open lattice structures, allowed for a large safety margin by designing the Tower to withstand wind pressures of 4 kN/m2. The fastest winds recorded at the Tower reached a speed of 214 km/h in 1999 and would have produced pressures of just 2.28 kN/m2.
The Eiffel Tower was built in 1889 for the Universal Exposition as a monument to the scientific achievements of the 18th century. And, thanks to the mathematical and engineering prowess of its designer Eiffel, it still stands as a witness to these scientific achievements over a century later.
But is it stronger than me?!
But is it stronger than me?!
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How the Santa Ana Winds Help Wildfires Spread
These strong winds blow warm, dry air across the region at different times of the year, but mainly occur in the late autumn. They form when a large pressure difference builds up between the Great Basin – a desert that covers most of Nevada and parts of Utah – and the coastal region around Los Angeles. This pressure gradient funnels air downhill and through the passes of the San Gabriel and San Bernardino mountains toward the Pacific. Squeezing through these narrow canyons, the wind is forced to speed up. The Santa Anas, according to the NWS, can easily exceed 40 mph.
Credit: NOAA/NWS
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Variations of Comparison Model - "Less Than"
Step 4: Since it is "less than", we are actually making the number 17 (starting number) smaller by the unknown value "?". Hence, draw a second box directly below the arrow and the first box to show that the number 17 has been shortened by the unknown value "?".
Step 5: Draw a last box next to the second box to make the model form a rectangle and write the number 13 in this box.
From the model,
17 - 13 = ?
17 - 13 = 4
Thus, the answer is 4.
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Discussion questions
These discussion questions are designed for use in teaching from the Macquarie PEN Anthology of Aboriginal Literature.
General questions
1. Discuss Indigenous poetry in terms of Aboriginal identity OR recording history OR talking about sense of place.
1. Choose one Indigenous author in any genre and discuss the style of their voice as compared to a non-Aboriginal writer of your choice.
1. What would you consider the roles of Aboriginal literature in Australia? Give examples to substantiate your claim.
1. Discuss the claim that Aboriginal literature is ‘post-colonial’.
1. Discuss the evolution of Aboriginal literature as seen in the anthology from Bennelong’s letters up until Alexis Wright’s Carpentaria.
1. What do you see as the major themes of Aboriginal literature?
Specific questions
1. Discuss the style of Kim Scott’s novel Benang? Is it conversational, 'postmodern', antithetical, revisionary, historical, political, reactionary? Something else?
1. How would you describe Lionel Fogarty’s poetry? What other writers internationally could be classified in the same way as Fogarty?
1. Discuss the most challenging aspects of the novel Rabbit Proof Fence for you as a reader. Also consider how ‘typical’ the experiences of Molly, Daisy and Gracie were for other Stolen Children.
1. What did Oodgeroo Noonuccal, Kevin Gilbert and Jack Davis have in common as Aboriginal writers? Explain.
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Did Burrowing Blindsnakes Raft Across the Oceans?
The blindsnake, a small subsurface burrower, is not often seen, but when it is many mistake it for a worm.1 Researchers have constructed an evolutionary history for these creatures, partly from biological data and partly from evolutionary assumptions. But if events occurred as these scientists suggest, then blindsnakes must have made fantastic voyages across vast oceans to reach their current habitats.
In a study published online in the Royal Society's Biology Letters, researchers from Pennsylvania State University and other institutions burrowed into DNA sequence data from five genes found in 96 different species of blindsnakes in order to establish evolutionary relationships between the species.2 They used molecular clocks--which are far from objective and yield inherently biased results3--to decide when one group split from another.
The gene differences were all assumed to have been caused by mutation, and the gene data was fitted into an algorithm that presumed that all the blindsnakes shared a common ancestor. The study’s results presented a significant problem. When the dates assigned to the species' divergence are compared to the prevailing theories of continental drift, certain families of blindsnakes must have developed after the combined land mass of Madagascar and India (dubbed "Indigascar" by the researchers) broke away from East Gondwana, which had earlier split from Gondwana, an ancient supercontinent.
A Penn State press release stated the problem succinctly: If the earliest blindsnake lineages developed on Indigascar, as the Biology Letters study claims, "how did they get to all of those other places in the world that they occupy today--Europe, Asia, Australia, Africa, and the Americas?" They infrequently venture up to the earth's surface and are not known to swim at all. The press release stated that the researchers' results led them to conclude that blindsnakes distributed themselves across the globe on "flotsam":
The period of greatest diversification coincided with a time of low sea levels, when connections between continents were forming and the dispersal of such unlikely animals by floating on flotsam was easier.4
Thus, one blindsnake family supposedly repeatedly floated and burrowed all the way from Africa to Australia, and another somehow floated for about six months across the Atlantic Ocean to reach the Americas! Senior researcher Blair Hedges said, "Some scientists have argued that oceanic dispersal is an unlikely way for burrowing organisms to become distributed around the world….Our data now reinforce the message that such 'unlikely' events nonetheless happened in evolutionary history."4
But since such transcontinental events are not observed today, the floating flotsam theory flounders. Slow and gradual processes mainly remove silt from continents, and they would not explain this dispersal nearly as well as a worldwide catastrophe that forced floating forest mats across whole oceans in earth's recent past.5
Because of the incongruity between the speculative dates of continental breakup and the speculative dates of snake divergence, it is likely that the assigned evolutionary ages for these snakes--or for any other organism similarly dated, for that matter--are anything but trustworthy.
1. Although they are called blindsnakes, most can detect light.
2. Vidal, N. et al. Blindsnake evolutionary tree reveals long history on Gondwana. Biology Letters. Published online before print March 31, 2010.
3. For example, see Thomas, B. Frozen Penguin DNA Casts Doubt on DNA-Based Dates. ICR News. Posted on icr.org November 25, 2009, accessed April 9, 2010.
4. Ancient snakes living on Madagascar. Penn State University Press release, March 30, 2010.
5. Morris, J. 1999. The Polystrate Trees and Coal Seams of Joggins Fossil Cliffs. Acts & Facts. 28 (10).
Article posted on April 22, 2010.
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It was an exciting week here at ICR as we watched workers carefully mount nine fossil replicas to the Discovery Center’s exterior wall. Each 12ˈ×12ˈ...
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`star` Proteins
`star` Carbohydrates
`star` Nucleic Acids
● Proteins are `color{violet}("polypeptides.")`
● They are `color{violet}("linear chains")` of amino acids linked by `color{brown}("peptide bonds.")`
● Each protein is a polymer of `color{violet}("amino acids.")`
● As there are 21 types of `color{violet}("amino acids")` (e.g., alanine, cysteine, proline, tryptophan, lysine, etc.), a protein is a
`color{brown}("heteropolymer")` and not a `color{brown}("homopolymer.")`
● A `color{violet}("homopolymer")` has only one type of `color{violet}("monomer repeating ‘n’")` number of times.
● This information about the `color{violet}("amino acid")` content is important as certain `color{violet}("amino acids")` are `color{brown}("essential")` for our health and they have to be supplied through our diet.
● Hence, `color{violet}("dietary proteins")` are the source of `color{violet}("essential amino acids.")`
● Therefore, amino acids can be `color{violet}("essential or non-essential.")`
● The latter are those which our body can make, while we get `color{violet}("essential amino acids")` through our diet/food.
● Proteins carry out many functions in `color{violet}("living organisms,")` some transport nutrients across cell membrane, some fight infectious organisms, some are `color{violet}("hormones,")` some are `color{violet}("enzymes,")` etc.
● `color{bron}("Collagen")` is the most abundant protein in animal world and `color{brown}("Ribulose bisphosphate Carboxylase-Oxygenase (RUBISCO)")` is the most abundant protein in the whole of the `color{violet}("biosphere.")`
● The `color{violet}("acid insoluble pellet")` also has `color{brown}("polysaccharides (carbohydrates)")` as another `color{violet}("class of macromolecules.")`
● `color{violet}("Polysaccharides")` are long chains of sugars.
● They are `color{violet}("threads")` (literally a cotton thread) containing different `color{violet}("monosaccharides")` as building blocks.
● For example `color{violet}("cellulose")` is a `color{violet}("polymeric polysaccharide")` consisting of only one type of monosaccharide i.e., `color{violet}("glucose. ")`
● `color{brown}("Cellulose"0` is a `color{violet}("homopolymer. ")`
● `color{brown}("Starch")` is a variant of this but present as a store house of energy in `color{violet}("plant tissues.")`
● Animals have another variant called `color{brown}("glycogen.")`
● `color{brown}("Inulin")` is a `color{violet}("polymer of fructose.")`
● In a `color{violet}("polysaccharide chain")` (say glycogen), the right end is called the `color{brown}("reducing end")` and the left end is called the `color{brown}("non-reducing end.")`
● It has branches as shown in the form of a `color{violet}("cartoon.")`
● `color{violet}("Starch")` forms `color{violet}("helical secondary structures.")`
● In fact, starch can hold `color{brown}(I_2 "molecules")` in the `color{violet}("helical portion.")`
● The `color{brown}("starch-" I_2)` is `color{brown}("blue")` in colour.
● `color{violet}("Cellulose")` does not contain `color{violet}("complex helices")` and hence cannot hold `color{brown}(I_2)`.
● `color{violet}("Plant cell walls")` are made of `color{brown}("cellulose.")`
● Paper made from `color{brown}("plant pulp")` is cellulose.
● Cotton fibre is `color{violet}("cellulose.")`
● There are more `color{violet}("complex polysaccharides")` in nature.
● They have as `color{violet}("building blocks, amino-sugars")` and chemically modified sugars (e.g., `color{brown}("glucosamine, N-acetyl
galactosamine,")` etc.).
● `color{violet}("Exoskeletons of arthropods,")` for example, have a `color{violet}("complex polysaccharide")` called `color{brown}("chitin.")`
● These `color{violet}("complex polysaccharides")` are `color{violet}("heteropolymers.")`
● The other type of `color{violet}("macromolecule")` that one would find in the `color{violet}("acid insoluble fraction"0` of any `color{violet}("living tissue")` is the `color{violet}("nucleic acid.")`
● These are `color{brown}("polynucleotides.")`
● Together with `color{violet}("polysaccharides and polypeptides")` these comprise the true `color{violet}("macromolecular fraction")` of any `color{violet}("living tissue or cell.")`
● For `color{violet}("nucleic acids,")` the building block is a `color{brown}("nucleotide.")`
● A `color{violet}("nucleotide")` has three chemically distinct components.
● One is a `color{brown}("heterocyclic compound")`, the second is a `color{violet}("monosaccharide")` and the third a `color{violet}("phosphoric acid")` or `color{violet}("phosphate.")`
● The `color{violet}("heterocyclic compounds")` in `color{violet}("nucleic acids")` are the `color{brown}("nitrogenous bases")` named `color{violet}("adenine, guanine, uracil, cytosine,")` and `color{violet}("thymine. ")`
● `color{violet}("Adenine and Guanine")` are `color{brown}("substituted purines")` while the rest are substituted pyrimidines.
● The skeletal `color{violet}("heterocyclic ring")` is called as `color{brown}("purine and pyrimidine")` respectively.
● The sugar found in `color{violet}("polynucleotides")` is either `color{brown}("ribose")` (a monosaccharide pentose) or `color{brown}("2 deoxyribose. ")`
● A `color{violet}("nucleic acid ")`containing deoxyribose is called `color{violet}("deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)")` while that which contains ribose is called `color{violet}("ribonucleic acid (RNA).")`
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Assessing the Longobards
For centuries historians have debated the so-called “Longobard question”, which regards the effects of Longobard dominion in Italy.
Over the years, the Longobards have been evaluated in contrasting ways: for some, they were a few “barbarian” invaders who undermined Classical – the only authentically “Italian” – civilization; for others, an already Romanized people who attempted to create a new and united nation. These judgements are loaded with various meanings and rooted in attempts to explain historical circumstances and events.
Alessandro Manzoni (1785-1873) in his Discorso su alcuni punti della storia longobardica in Italia, preface to the play Adelchi (1822), gives a negative assessment, accusing them of being the predecessors of the contemporary Austrian occupiers. In the 14th century the Viscontis, in support of their expansionist policy, elected them as mythical forebears, while the 18th-century followers of the Enlightenment saw in the Longobards the first real opposition to the church’s interference in secular matters. Historians today view the Longobards as part of a long “transition period” which led to the formation of European nation-states.
The Longobards were one of the "invader" (or "migrant") peoples who, against a backdrop of the social crisis of Late Antiquity, contributed to the formation of a new European culture through a long process of cultural integration. Seen in this light, the Regnum Langobardorum served as a bridge between East and West.
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Create better lessons quicker
Lowland landscapes are [layers] of [sedimentary] rock. They've been folded and reshaped by tectonics so you get gentle dip slopes leading to a dome of [chalk], with a steep [scarp] slope the other side. During an Ice Age all of this ground is [permafrost], and water can't [infiltrate]. It runs off via [overland] flow (mini-rivers) which cause [vertical] erosion and [valleys] to form. When the temperatures are warmer, the chalk is [permeable] and water can infiltrate and [percolate] down into the rock. .
Yr 10 - 1GB2 4a.3 - Lowlands Cloze Pt. 1
Switch template
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Semantics and Meaning
How language shapes the way we think by Lera Boroditsky
The suffix "-ster" in "Get Fuzzy"
The story of colour names around the world
What your speaking style, like, says about you
23 emotions people feel, but can't explain
“Biawak” in Malay figurative language
Let’s Get Fuzzy!
Pair words with alliteration and rhyme in Bahasa Malaysia
Combinatoric irregularity in the words for local citizens of countries and regions
Naming of locations in Bahasa Melayu/Malaysia: the traditional way
Figurative representation in The World Unseen: An analysis
Extension/shift of meaning of Sanskrit loanwords in Bahasa Malaysia
Linguistic features of language of selected teen magazines: A general analysis
Word-formation processes in Bahasa Melayu/Malaysia
Stages of child’s development of language
Why does Synonymy happen? A look at Bahasa Melayu/Malaysia
Synonymy in Bahasa Melayu/Malaysia: Strict Synonymy and Loose Synonymy
-kan and ‘kan in Spoken Bahasa Melayu/Malaysia
Semantic Analysis: Conceptual meaning and Connotative meaning
Case of the Cool Conman: Semantic analysis
Perhubungan Makna Sinonimi dan Hiponimi Item Leksikal Dalam Bahasa Malaysia
The use of Malaysian English lexical items in the IRC international
Ungkapan (idiomatic expressions) in Modern Bahasa Melayu/Malaysia
Onomatopoeia in Bahasa Melayu/Malaysia: sounds of animals
Lexico-Semantic Analysis: “I think”
Lexico-Semantic Analysis: “if"
Analysis of Derivational Morphemes in Malay
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"url": "http://linguallyspeaking.blogspot.com/p/semantics-and-meaning.html"
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women inventors photo
Inventions By Women That Changed The World
Here is the list of some female innovators and notable inventions by women in the past hundred years.
Virginia Apgar stamp photo
Virginia Apgar was an American obstetrical anesthesiologist
VIRGINIA APGAR (1909-1974)
Virginia Apgar was an American obstetrical anesthesiologist, most famously known for her invention of the Apgar Score in the year 1953. The Apgar score (test) was used to acertain the health of newly born babies immediately after the birth.
In 1949, Apgar was the first woman to become a full professor at Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons (CUCPS). She remained an important figure there until 1959. During that time, she did clinical and research work at the affiliated Sloane Hospital for Women.
The innovation of the Apgar Score proved to be highly effective in saving lives of newly born babies. After the success of this system of evaluating a newborn’s health, Virginia Apgar dedicated her life to helping children. She excelled in various research and clinical fields. She served as vice president of medical affairs at Sloane and was instrumental in starting research programs to treat birth defects. Apgar is an inspiration to all women in the field of medicine. The Apgar Score will likely remain her most important work since it was the only test to predict symptoms of premature birth at that time. Virginia Apgar received several honors and awards on behalf of her contributions to medicine.
The most amazing part of this story is that the Apgar Score is still widely used today.
Gertrude B Elion Photo
Gertrude Belle Elion was an American biochemist and pharmacologist
Gertrude B.Ellion was American Biochemist and pharmacologist. She was the first person to provide a chance of survival for those combating HIV (Aids). She introduced the drug azidothymide in 1983 which was used as a first treatment of the HIV virus. This particular drug prevented replication of the virus and reduced risk of its transmission from mother to the fetus during birth.
She also developed the first immunosuppressive drug azathioprine which later played a vital role in the research and development in treating those infected by HIV. The life of Gertrude B.Ellion was full of strugles but she continued contributing to this great cause and is considered one of Americas top women innovators in the field of medicine.
While not a woman inventor in the truest sense, her technical innovations in the fields of medicine, chemistry, science and biology are important to note. Gertrude deserves a part among all the amazing women on our list.
Gertrude B.Ellion served important posts at various departments of research including National Cancer InstituteAmerican Association for Cancer Research and World Health Organization.
She the won the noble prize for Physiology of Medicine in 1988.
Stephanie Louise Kwolek photo
Stephanie Louise Kwolek was an American chemist and inventor of Kevlar
Stephanie Kwolek was an American chemist who started her career at DuPont Company. She is the inventor of the super strong, space age material known as Kevlar fiber. Introduced in 1965, Kevlar is used to produce racing tires, bulletproof vests, fuel cells and many other products. New uses for Kevlar are being discovered every day.
Kevlar’s strength is estimated at five times or more than that of steel. Kevlar has widespread applications ranging from automobiles to spacecraft. Of all the women inventors on this list, Stephanie’s invention of Kevlar keeps improving as time goes on. Because of its high strength and flexibility, Kevlar is used as a bladder in fuel cells for race cars, military vehicles and spacecraft. These colapsable cells reduce the chance of fire and explosions caused by air pockets that normally get trapped in rigid aluminum or fiber glass tanks. The invention of Kevlar has saved countless lives on race tracks and war zones around the world.
Stephanie Kwolek was awarded the ‘Lavoisier Medal’ for outstanding technical achievements. She also received the Chemical Pioneer Award and Award for Creative Invention. Her name was added to the Engineering and Science Hall of Fame.
Advances in the uses for Kevlar and its manufacturing processes continue to this day.
Mandy Haberman photo
Inventor of the Haberman Feeder and the Anywayup
MANDY HABERMAN (1956-Todate)
Mandy Haberman is an English Inventor and entrepreneur. She is best known for the invention of the Haberman feeder and Anywayup Cup. She was inspired to create these drinking cups after her child was born in 1980 with Stickler syndrome.
The Haberman feeder is designed specifically for babies having difficulties in sucking. The special shape of this feeder helps infants drink and swallow more easily. Her drinking cups are frequently used in hospitals as well. Her second invention, the Anywayup Cup has been widely sold to commercial markets around the world, reaching sales of more than ten million units in a year.
Her original design of the Anywayup Cup has earned her great fame and financial security but it didn’t come easy. Many copies appeared on the market and she spent years fighting and winning many patent infringement cases. Mandy Haberman has received awards for innovation and ‘Female Inventor of the year’ in 2000. She holds an honorary doctorate from Bournemouth University
Women like Mandy inspire inventors every day. Look at her website and read up on her history. She started out just like the rest of us long before she became a successful inventor.
Mandy has dedicated much of her time to inspiring other inventors and offers help via her website mandyhaberman.com
Carmela Vitale pizza saver
Carmela Vitale’s life is a mystery as the inventor of the pizza saver.
Carmela Vitale (died 2005 at the same time her patent expired)
Carmela Vitale of Dix Hills, New York is the inventor of the pizza saver. Many inventions that we use use every day are taken for granted but this little plastic thingy can be found in pizza shops around the world. Originally patented as the “package saver” in 1985, this simple creation was also referred to as the pizza table and pizza nipple.
The patent expired in 2005 and it is not known if Carmela ever made money from this idea. There have since been many copies created and the insignificant cost meant that she would have to sell tens of millions of them to see any real financial reward.
The purpose of Pizza Saver was to prevent the box from touching the top of the food inside. Carmela Vitale is now an inventing legend. Many people have spent time and resources trying to track down any information they can regarding her life.
In a strange twist of fate, Carmela Vitale died at the age of 68 within weeks of her patent’s expiration.
Jennifer Lawrence and Joy Magnano
Joy Mangano is the inventor of the self-wringing Miracle Mop
JOY MANGANO (1956-Todate):
Joy Mangano is the most famous inventor on our list. She is known for her self-wringing Miracle Mop that was first introduced on the Home Shopping Network. She also holds more than 100 patents for her many inventions.
The idea of the self-wringing plastic mop came to her after experiencing the frustrations with using an ordinary mop. The Miracle Mop has a slidable and removable plastic head that holds one continuous loop of 300 feet of cotton mop rope. The sliding action of the head makes wringing the mop cleanly into a bucket almost effortless. The cotton portion is detachable and can easily be cleaned in a washing machine.
Her unique and innovative invention established her as a successful entrepreneur and has made her a multi-millionaire.
The film Joy, starring Jennifer Lawrence was released in 2015 and is based on her life.
Dr. Shirley Jackson Photo
Dr. Shirley Jackson is an American physicist,
Dr. SHIRLEY JACKSON (1946-Todate):
Shirley Ann Jackson is an American scientist that received her Ph.D. degree in nuclear physics from MIT university in 1973. She conducted her post-doctoral research with an exempelary dedication to her work. In 1974 she started as a visiting scientist at the European Organization for Nuclear Research. While there she paved the way for the advancements in material and nuclear sciences. Although Shirley Ann Jackson didn’t actually invent any products, the high tech materials used in many electronic devices would not be possible without her research and comittment to discovering new things.
The List of Women Inventors Could Go On Forever!
There are many Inventions By Women that have influenced the world and these were just a few of the ones I found most interesting. One thing these women all seem to have in common is the drive and ambition that I keep mentioning here on Invention Therapy. You have to be able to stand on your own, take charge and get things done often times without help from others. Remember, like I always say: “your idea is worthless, it’s the implementation of it that has value”.
These women had what it takes to turn an idea into real, tangible techniques, materials and products. Some succeeded financially while others simply gained infamy by changing our every day lives forever. The reward and path you choose is up to you.
Getting your idea out of your head and into your hands is only the first in a long set of steps towards becoming a successful inventor.
Learn How To Invent
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What exactly was “red gold”?
Old Norse poetry often referred to red gold:
The modifying phrases used in Old Norse are raut gull ‘red gold’ and bleikt gull ‘bright gold’… Old Norse also has raud mani ‘red moon’ and et rauða ‘egg yolk’. Among the twenty-eight times that read- is used in Old English poetry, the phrase read gold appears four times. Read- modifies gold about twenty-one times in the Old English corpus, and it modifies blod about twelve times. (Anderson: 133)
(Which at least shows that they knew what “red” looked like.) Anderson goes on to give other instances in Medieval English poetry, as well as in other languages, which suggest that the idea of red gold was pretty common in Europe, at least until the late Middle Ages, when yellow became the common adjective for gold.
Gold was also described as blóðrauðr, blood-red, or glóðrauðr, ember-red, and there was even an adjective form, gullroðínn, gold-reddened. (Crawford: 246) In the Eddic poem Voluspa, too, the rooster who sits on top of the world-tree is called Gullinkambi, Gold-Comb.
Was medieval gold red?
We expect red gold to look like the middle ring,
Precious Metals
which is gold with a copper alloy. “Rose gold”, as jewllers now call it, is popular, as a quick search on Google will show. Jewellers consider it a novelty item, however, which brings us back to the question, was medieval gold red, or did they just describe it that way?
One theory is that medieval people prized red gold above the ordinary kind. (Alternatively, some have suggested that the red sort was commoner than the yellow in those days.)
However, a quick glance at images of Classical or Medieval gold items shows they are the golden colour we moderns are used to. If you want to see artifacts of red gold, you need to look in the Chinese section of the museum, apparently. (Anderson: 134)
Colour names and reality
Other theories about “red” gold have focused on the everyday fact that many things described as being a certain colour aren’t, really. Wine is a good example, also human skin colour. (How many of us as small children have objected that white, yellow and black people are nothing of the kind?) Those of us who garden know just how elastic the word “blue” can be, although in this case commerce plays a role.
White-pink-or-red-delicious-glass-of-wine_1280x800It is easy to forget that adjectives are conventions, and they work as long as everyone understands the convention. (Adjectives are signs, which correspond to real-life referents, but how they refer to those real-life objects is mediated by human culture, as the intellectuals would say.)
Linguists who study colour names say that “red” is the first real colour-word that appears in languages. (Black and white are, technically, not colours.) There are many theories as to why this might be, but it seems to be universal. The original theory of colour differentiation broke it down into stages.
• Stage One, two colours: light/warm (white/red/yellow) vs. dark/cool (black/green/blue)
• Stage Two, three colours: white, red/yellow, black/green/blue
(It goes on to five stages, with twelve basic colours.)
Red usually refers to any bright colour, as opposed to the black-gray-white that defines dark things and light things. Next, we usually get a division between the warm and cool ends of the spectrum.
Presumably then the Norse and English were both describing warm-hued objects as “red” whether they were actually reddish or dark yellow. (They did have a word for bright yellow or pinkish things as well: bleikr, which could describe a the colour of a face, or a bird’s feet.)
Crawford notes that in the story Rauðúlfs thattr red gold is contrasted with “less desirable” yellow gold, bleikt gull, and suggests that the “red” part may indicate purity and good colour, rather than any redness. (246) That bleikr could indicate paler versions of rauðr seems to back this up.
The word for white, hvítr, often modifies silver in the same way, sometimes as “snow-white”, mjallhvítr or snæhvítr. The word grár, gray, indicates silver of lesser quality, although it’s very rare.
The importance of red
Three ochre pigments, by Marco Almbauer. Wikimedia
Three ochre pigments, by Marco Almbauer. Wikimedia
We’re still left with the question of why better gold would be “red” and silver “white”. Why do we favour red?
As I mentioned above, linguists say that after people distinguish black and white, giving them names, red comes next. So it’s not surprising that two valuable metals would be compared to two of the most basic colour terms we have, especially if we’re talking about their purity. That later-developing colour names are used for impure metal bears this out.
Another theory goes back to the use of ochre, which comes in yellowish and reddish hues, by our distant ancestors. (It has been found all over the world, from Africa to the U.S.) They used it for art, body decoration, and funeral rites, among other things.
Some trace the use of the term “Red Indian” to the body paint the Newfoundland Beothuks used. (The reddish hue in ochre, by the way, comes from the iron ore, or hematite, content, not copper.) Humans have valued red for a long time.
Red was therefore important both symbolically and aesthetically. The associations of red are still more compelling than those for yellow: danger, blood, and love instead of sunshine, cowardice, and sickness.
And of course, we would expect a goddess to weep tears of pure gold, rather than an inferior alloy. Especially Freyja, the goddess whose daughters are both named Treasure, whose family is known for their wealth and generosity.
Crawford, Jackson 2016: Bleikr Gulr and the Categorizaton of Colour in Old Norse in the Journal of English and German Philology: 239-52.
Anderson, Earl R. 2003: Folk-Taxonomies in Early English, Fairleigh Dickinson University Press.
Nautilus article on Colour Categories
Alphabetic Index of the Cleasby/Vigfusson Icelandic Dictionary
Article on the Origin of Traffic Light Colours
Neanderthals and Red Ochre
9 thoughts on “What exactly was “red gold”?
1. Belinda O
Intriguing! I can see where “red” would be the more appealing adjective over “yellow,” even if we don’t really see too much red in pure gold. It appears red is synonymous with a level of brightness or richness of color, if I read your article correctly. I wonder if it was used in other instances? “Red” sun meaning a bright, sunny day? “Red” stars that stood out from others — and today we might think they were talking about Mars?
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1. solsdottir Post author
I hadn’t thought about that – but the red sun is worth looking into. Red for the sun and white for the moon are traditional, and could tie into the same idea of intenser colours being more meaningful.
Liked by 1 person
2. Faye
Interesting discussions here about the perceived ideas of colours. I wonder because in traditional Australian history going back millions of years we have rich gold resources called red, and rose gold. In opals more than the usual colours known to early man emerge. What do you think about ochre …..Its been around for ?? and is in all dreamtime legends. Found the article interesting and informative. Thank you.
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3. Mikael Bynke
Interesting post. Here in Sweden goldsmiths still refer to pure gold as “rödguld” (red gold). This inspires me to DI some research…
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Fungi in Fly’s Clothing
Entomophthora are a group of pathogenic fungal species that bore into the body of flies, hijack their minds, and cause their death. Their name literally means “insect destroyer,” and they are often described as creating zombies out of their hosts.
Researchers understand the general Entomophthora life cycle, but the way these fungi control their hosts is still a mystery. Now, scientists in Professor Michael Eisen’s lab in the Department of Molecular and Cell Biology are performing experiments to find out just how a fungus can control an insect’s behavior.
When infected by this fungus, a fly first loses its ability to fly. Next, it climbs slowly to an elevated position, like the underside of a leaf—a behavior that researchers call “summiting.” Once there, its legs begin to twitch convulsively, almost like it’s having a seizure. Then, its proboscis (a tongue-like appendage) repeatedly extends and retracts until it sticks to the surface of the leaf permanently. At this point, the fly seems dead. Then, suddenly, its wings lift slowly away from its body until they are extended straight in the air, at which point the fly stops moving completely.
A few hours later, a white fuzzy substance materializes on the fly’s abdomen—these are fungal cells called conidiophores growing out of the fly. The conidiophores act like cannons that forcefully shoot infectious cells called conidia into the air at approximately 21 miles per hour. Carolyn Elya, a graduate student in the Eisen lab, estimates that if the conidium had the diameter of a baseball, it would be moving at about 28,500 miles per hour.
After being fired from the host fly, the conidia use both chemical and mechanical force to get inside of a new fly by boring a hole in the fly’s hard outer shell. Once inside, the fungus feeds off the fly’s fat bodies and replicates. Four to seven days later, only the empty body of the fly remains, and the zombie behavior of the fungus repeats.
Mysteriously, the fly’s behavioral response to infection—that summiting behavior—typically starts just after sunset. It’s this puzzle that is intriguing to Elya.
There are several possibilities for how the fungus manipulates flies. On the one hand, as Elya explains, it isn’t even clear that the fungi control the fly’s brain at all. Instead, it seems most likely that “the fungus just sort of ‘noms’ away on a lot of different parts of the fly and that manifests as the fly losing the ability to move,” Elya says.
The spore-like condia of Entomophthora have multiple nuclei (shown in blue). Credit: Hayley McCausland
However, this doesn’t explain the summiting behavior. Walking to a high place at sunset is a complex task and seems likely to require control of specific parts of the brain.
According to Eisen, “the fungus could be secreting chemicals that are able to modify certain brain activity, or maybe it’s physically traveling to a particular part of the brain and manipulating brain cells.”
While little is known about how these fungi create the walking dead, much is known about their fruit fly hosts. Drosophila melanogaster has been investigated extensively, leading to a well-studied genome and lots of tools for genetic engineering. That means Elya can manipulate fly genes to piece together how the fungus interacts with its host.
Elya wants to understand why the flies usually start summiting at sunset—is the fungus using its own clock to determine when the fly summits? Or is it hijacking one of the fly’s natural behaviors and using the fly’s clock?
To approach this, she will experiment with flies genetically engineered to have abnormal circadian rhythms—ones that have an internal clock longer than 24 hours. That way, she can decouple the fly’s rhythm from the fungus’s. Observing the timing of fly death relative to sunset in normal flies versus the genetically engineered ones will help determine if the fly or the fungus is controlling the behavior.
Microbes like Entomophthora that manipulate animals’ behavior are valuable subjects for scientists. “Parasites manipulate behavior in ways that no neurobiologist ever could, and it might be the case that learning how a parasite manipulates the nervous system [can teach you] things about the endogenous function of that system that you couldn’t learn otherwise,” states Michael Bronski, another graduate student in the Eisen lab.
In other words, this parasitic fungus might reveal things about animal biology that we would never come up with ourselves. It’s a fine example that, as Elya says, “nature does everything better.”
Featured Image Caption: Flies infected with Entomophthora die immobilized with their proboscis extended and wings raised. The white fungal conidiophores emerge from the fly’s abdomen, poised to shoot conidia into the air. The black spot on the fly’s eye is a scar from the invasion of a condium several days earlier. Credit: Carolyn Elya
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分类:英语资讯 作者:千影 评论:0 点击: 263 次 日期:2017-04-18
The ancient traditional six arts can be dated back to the Zhou Dynasty, 1046 BC. The noble class used the six arts as a standard to judge whether a son of aristocrats was fit to hold his title. The six arts included courtesy, music, archery, riding, writing and math.
Courtesy is an extraordinarily important cornerstone in Chinese culture. Without courtesy, the 5,000-year-old country would never exist. In ancient China, there were officers in charge of courtesy for every aspect of life, like marriage, funerals, school entry and sacrifice.
Chinese people started to live with a sense of ritual thousands of years ago and nothing can remove it from Chinese culture.
Music was not just a melody or a pastime for entertainment in ancient China. It was a symbol of great manners and a well-educated person. It was not just a melody but also contained music theory. To learn music, one should have high aesthetic standards.
Confucius himself studied from three different people to learn courtesy, music and how to play music. Music was also an indispensable part of Chinese culture. People play music in every ritual to express feelings and emotions. Also, there was a special position for a music officer in the court.
Archery was not only a way to protect the kingdom or to kill enemies, but was also a good sport. China measured its force of strength as much as literature. A real gentleman should not only be well-educated but also should be strong and demonstrate great archery skills. A good archer was highly admired in ancient China not only among the nobility but also among ordinary people. The ancient emperors took archery classes as a required course and it was a tradition to hold a big hunting ceremony every year.
Riding is an interesting subject in ancient China. If you wanted to compete in riding, your skills and your talents would be both required. Riding contests were always popular, and the winner always showed great leadership and great skills in operation research. Also, riding was so important in wars, so almost every man and even woman had to learn how to ride.
Writing usually included handwriting, reading, drawing and composition. There have been so many great calligraphers throughout the history of China and Chinese greatly valued handwriting. There’s a saying that your handwriting reflects your alter ego. (Note: I think this is what is meant. If not, let me know so we can fix it) Especially in ancient China, it was necessary for an emperor to write beautifully. There were many emperors in China who were not only calligraphers, but also poets. Having the ability to compose poems is the skill of an educated person. Chinese ancient poetry is a precious heritage for every Chinese and to the whole world.
“书”通常包括书写，阅读，绘画和写作。中国的历史上有很多书法家 ，中国也很重视书写。有这样的一个成语：字如其人。（注：我认为这是该成语的意思。如果不是，请告诉我，然后我们来改正。）尤其是在中国古代，皇帝的书写要很漂亮。中国的皇帝有很多不只是书法家，同时还是诗人。作诗是每一个受到教育的人应有的技能。中国古代的诗歌是每一个中国人，甚至是全世界的宝贵遗产。
In ancient times, math was a useful method to make predictions. Ancient Chinese also developed links between math and ancient astronomy. Ancient Chinese used math to develop astronomy, to predict the weather and applied knowledge to real life. The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art was the earliest Chinese math book. The ancient Chinese also developed the abacus to benefit daily living and this invention is one of China’s material cultural heritages.
声明: 除非注明，本文属( 千影 )原创，转载请保留链接: http://www.tomrrow.com/archives-8947.html
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Salix alba-White Willow
A picture of Salix alba courtesy of Steve Hammonds
World wide distribution chart produced by Global Biodiversity Information Facility
A world wide distribution picture that describes that density of Salix alba populations. This picture has been provided by Global Biodiversity Information Facility.
Salix alba was originally found in western Europe where it quickly spread across the continent. Now it is a common sight to see in North America with the exception of Mexico and other countries south of Mexico.
A picture of a willow by the water side taken by flatcap2009 on FLICKR
Salix alba can be found along rivers, lakes, or other natural water sources. This is because they need a large amount of water to sustain themselves. Also, they need a large amount of sunlight. The banks of water sources provide a perfect combination of these factors for willow trees. They also have strong capability to adapt to different PH levels in soil. This gives them the ability to survive many different soil types.
However, one of the consequences of living next to water for the willow tree is that it is susceptible to many diseases such as watermark disease this is caused by a bacteria called Brenneria salicis
Today there are even certain strains that have been introduced into Australia that are thriving. This is pretty amazing because these trees prefer moist, slightly humid environments.
Some of the other organisms that also live in this environment include The Common Green Bottle Fly, The Spotted Salamander, and The Barred Owl. The common factor of the organisms is that they all need to be next to water sources to survive, even the owl! These WebPages are a continuation of the multiple organisms webpage project.
Next lets look at the adaptation of Salix alba.
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Study Guide
by William Shakespeare
Coriolanus Summary
Probably written in 1607 or 1608, Coriolanus is one of Shakespeare's mature tragedies, composed at a time when the playwright was at the apex of his creative power. Traditional and at least some modern literary critics have ranked Coriolanus a notch below the four great tragedies (Hamlet, King Lear, Macbeth, and Othello) that Shakespeare wrote before he came to his story of the prideful Roman general. Nevertheless T. S. Eliot considered Coriolanus to be Shakespeare's finest achievement in tragedy. This mixed appraisal of the play is due chiefly to the character of Coriolanus himself, who is widely acknowledged to be the least sympathetic protagonist among Shakespeare's tragic figures. Coriolanus was, in fact, a military and political leader of ancient Rome, Shakespeare relying upon an account of his career presented by the historian Plutarch in his Lives.
Not only is Coriolanus a Roman history play in addition to being a tragedy, it is a decidedly political work that embodies a debate or treatise concerning the relative merits of patrician autocracy versus plebian democracy. One of the play's central figurative motifs is the analogy of the body politic spelled out by the patrician (rich and conservative) senator Menenius in the opening scene's famous belly speech. It pivots on the notion of the state (here the city-state) being an organic body in which different classes or vocations of citizens are parts or members, the aristocrats being the "belly" and the lower-class plebians being the "toe." It is the arm of the Roman state, the fierce, noble, and proud military leader Coriolanus with which the play is centrally concerned.
On one level, Coriolanus more closely approximates the tragic heroes of an ancient Greek drama than that of any of Shakespeare's other characters. He is a Great Man who is brought low by his flaw of excessive pride or hubris. But Shakespeare adds a deeper flaw to his central character, for the pride of Coriolanus is accompanied by a dependency upon his mother, Volumnia. As she reminds him in two pivotal scenes (Act III, scene iii and Act V, scene iii), she is her son's creator. In the end, Coriolanus cannot simply sever himself from the body politic of his motherland, for his identity depends upon Volumnia's esteem.
Coriolanus Summary (Critical Survey of Literature for Students)
Caius Marcius, a brilliant soldier, is attempting to subdue a mob in Rome when he is summoned to lead his troops against the Volscians from Corioli. The Volscians are headed by Tullus Aufidius, also a great soldier and perennial foe of Marcius. The hatred the two leaders have for each other fires their military ambitions. Marcius’s daring as a warrior, known by all since he was sixteen, leads him to pursue the enemy inside the very gates of Corioli. Locked inside the city, he and his troops fight so valiantly that they overcome the Volscians. Twice wounded, the victorious general is garlanded and hailed as Caius Marcius Coriolanus.
On his return to Rome, Coriolanus is further proclaimed by patricians, consuls, and senators, and he is recommended for the office of consul, an appointment wholeheartedly approved by the nobles. Because the citizens, too, have to vote on his appointment, Coriolanus, accompanied by Menenius Agrippa, goes to Sicinius and Brutus, the plebeian tribunes, to seek their approval.
The people long held only contempt for Coriolanus because of his arrogance and inhumane attitude toward all commoners. Although coached and prompted by Menenius to make his appeal as a wound-scarred soldier of many wars, Coriolanus cannot bring himself to solicit the citizens’ support but instead demands it. He is successful in this with individuals he approaches at random on the streets, but Brutus and Sicinius, who represent the common people, are not willing to endorse the elevation of Coriolanus to office. They voice the opinions of many citizens when they accuse Coriolanus of insolence and of abuses such as denying the people food from the public storehouses. Urging those citizens who voted for him to rescind their votes, Brutus and Sicinius point out that his military prowess is not to be denied but that this very attribute will result in further suppression and misery for the people. Coriolanus’s ambitions, they predict, will lead to his complete domination of the government and to the destruction of their democracy.
Menenius, Cominius, and the senators repeatedly plead with Coriolanus to approach the tribunes civilly, and Volumnia admonishes him that if he wants to realize his political ambitions he must follow their advice. Appealing to his responsibility as a Roman, Volumnia points out that service to one’s country is not shown on the battlefield alone and that Coriolanus must use certain strategies and tactics for victory in peace as well as in war.
Coriolanus misconstrues his mother’s suggestions. She taught him arrogance, nurtured his desires in military matters, and boasted of his strength and of her part in developing his dominating personality. Coriolanus now infers that his mother in her older years is asking for submissiveness and compliance. Although he promises Volumnia that he will deal kindly with the people, it is impossible for him to relent, even when his wife, Virgilia, who never condoned his soldiership, lends her pleas to those of the group and appeals to his vanity as a capable political leader and to his responsibility as a father and a husband.
Coriolanus’s persistence in deriding and mocking the citizens leads to an uprising against him. Drawing his sword, he would have stood alone against the mob, but Menenius and Cominius, fearing that the demonstration might result in an overthrow of the government, prevail upon him to withdraw to his house before the crowd assembles. Coriolanus misinterprets the requests of his friends and family that he yield to the common people, and he displays such arrogance that he is banished from Rome. Tullus Aufidius, learning of these events, prepares his armies to take advantage of the civil unrest in Rome.
Coriolanus, in disguise to protect himself against those who want to avenge the deaths of the many he killed, goes to Antium to offer his services to Aufidius against Rome. When Coriolanus removes his disguise, Aufidius, who knows the Roman’s ability as a military leader, willingly accepts his offer to aid in the Volscian campaign. Aufidius divides his army in order that he and Coriolanus each can lead a unit, thereby broadening the scope of his efforts against the Romans. In this plan, Aufidius sees the possibility of avenging Coriolanus’s earlier victories over him; once they take Rome, Aufidius thinks, the Romans’ hatred for Coriolanus will make possible his dominance over the arrogant patrician.
The Romans hear with dismay of Coriolanus’s affiliation with Aufidius; their only hope, some think, is to appeal to Coriolanus to spare the city. Although Menenius and Cominius blame the tribunes for Coriolanus’s banishment, they go as messengers to the great general in his camp outside the gates of Rome. They are unsuccessful, and Cominius returns to inform the citizens that, in spite of old friendships, Coriolanus will not be swayed in his intentions to annihilate the city. Cominius reports that Coriolanus refuses to take the time to find the few grains who are his friends among the chaff he intends to burn.
Menenius, sent to appeal again to Coriolanus, meets with the same failure. Coriolanus maintains that his ears are stronger against the pleas than the city gates are against his might. Calling the attention of Aufidius to his firm stand against the Romans, he asks him to report his conduct to the Volscian lords. Aufidius promises to do so and praises the general for his stalwartness. While Coriolanus vows not to hear the pleas of any other Romans, he is interrupted by women’s voices calling his name. The petitioners are Volumnia, Virgilia, and young Marcius, his son. Telling them that he will not be moved, he again urges Aufidius to observe his unyielding spirit. Then Volumnia speaks, saying that their requests for leniency and mercy are in vain, since he already proclaimed against kindliness, and that they will therefore not appeal to him. He also makes it impossible for them to appeal to the gods: They cannot pray for victory for Rome because such supplication will be against him, and they cannot pray for his success in the campaign because that would betray their country. Volumnia proclaims that she does not seek advantage for either the Romans or the Volscians but asks only for reconciliation. She predicts that Coriolanus will be a hero to both sides if he can arrange an honorable peace between them.
Finally moved by his mother’s reasoning, Coriolanus announces to Aufidius that he will frame a peace agreeable to the two forces. Aufidius declares that he, too, is moved by Volumnia’s solemn pleas and wise words. Volumnia, Virgilia, and young Marcius return to Rome, there to be welcomed for the success of their intercession with Coriolanus. Aufidius withdraws to Antium to await the return of Coriolanus and their meeting with the Roman ambassadors, but as he reviews the situation, he realizes that peace will nullify his plan for revenge against Coriolanus. Moreover, knowing of the favorable regard the Volscians have for Coriolanus, he believes he has to remove the man who was his conqueror in war and who might become his subduer in peace. At a meeting of the Volscian lords, Aufidius announces that Coriolanus betrayed the Volscians by depriving them of victory. In the ensuing confusion, he stabs Coriolanus to death. Regretting his deed, he then eulogizes Coriolanus and says that he will live forever in men’s memories. One of the Volscian lords pronounces Coriolanus the most noble corpse ever followed to the grave.
Coriolanus Act and Scene Summary
Act I Summary
Scene i: The play opens in a street of ancient Rome as a mob of citizens (or plebians) express their anger toward Maritus (soon dubbed "Coriolanus"), whom they hold most responsible for a shortage of food. As they ready to seize Maritus, one of his friends the patrician Senator Menenius arrives. Popular with the plebian masses, he tells the riotous commoners a story about the rebellion against the belly by the other members of the body, and this (momentarily) calms them down. Just then, the play's main character, Maritus, enters and expresses his wrath and disdain with the mob, calling these lowly citizens "scabs" and declaring that if it were up to him, he'd use his sword against the rabble. He tells his friend...
(The entire section is 777 words.)
Act II Summary
Scene i: Now in the city of Rome, the pro-Corolainus Senator Menenius stands alongside the anti-Corolanius tribunes Brutus and Sicinius as they await the hero's triumphant return. Menenius chides the tribunes for their past hostility toward the man who has won the day for Rome as a garlanded Coriolanus enters and goes to his waiting family. He embraces his mother and then his wife. We learn through the resentful tribunes that Coriolanus is now the hero of the common people. They take solace in the fickleness of the mob, saying that they will eventually remember past wrongs and turn upon the prideful, autocratic Coriolanus.
Scene ii: At the Capitol of Rome, Coriolanus withdraws when the...
(The entire section is 301 words.)
Act III Summary
Scene i: On a street in Rome, Coriolanus is told that the Volscian Aufidius plans to make war against Rome again, and Coriolanus is again gladdened by the prospect of matching swords with his arch-rival in glory. He then learns from Brutus and Sicinius that the people have turned against him. Although his allies, including the patrician Menenius, advise Coriolanus to resolve his issues with the mob diplomatically, he is enraged and asserts that the common people should have no say in choosing Rome's consul. At this, "a rabble of Plebians" arrives and the tribunes declare Coriolanus to be a traitor. He offers to fight the lot of them but is led away by Menenius and other senators of the aristocratic faction. The...
(The entire section is 394 words.)
Act IV Summary
Scene i: In front of Rome's gates, Coriolanus exchanges farewells with his mother, wife, and child, Volumnia cursing the common people and their tribunes.
Scene ii: On a street near the same gate, Sicinius and Brutus encounter Volumnia and the other members of Coriolanus's family. The matriarch says that she wished the gods had nothing other to do than to inflict her curses upon them.
Scene iii: This scene takes place on a highway between Rome and Antium, the home city of Aufidius, as an exchange between two unnamed characters, one a Roman and the other a Volsce. The Roman tells his friend that Coriolanus has been banished, and the Volscian realizes that...
(The entire section is 380 words.)
Act V Summary
Scene i: Back in Rome, the General Cominius says that he has tried to meet with Coriolanus at his camp but that he has been refused entry. The tribunes entreat Menenius, who has been like a father to Coriolanus, to see if he can persuade his son to spare Rome from the torch. Menenius is reluctant to undertake the mission; Cominius predicts that he too will be turned away; the tribunes say that only Coriolanus's family, notably his mother, may have the power to persuade him to make peace with Rome.
Scene ii: Menenius arrives at the camp of Coriolanus and is turned away by the guards. He does speak with Coriolanus (accompanied by Aufidius), but the banished general refuses to talk at...
(The entire section is 443 words.)
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Norse Mythology
After 1000 BC some form of Indo-European language was spoken by most European cultures. From the middle of the 1st millennium BC, Germanic tribes lived in southern Scandinavia and northern Germany. Their expansions and migrations from the 2d century BC onward are recorded in history. Scandinavian and Germanic mythology have a common origin and structure; they will, therefore, be discussed in their unity. With the exception of the observations made by the Romans Julius Caesar and Tacitus, all of the sources on Germanic mythology are late and Christian. The main body of traditions is contained in the Prose Edda of SNORRI STURLUSON (c.1179-1241), an Icelandic historian who is considered the most accurate editor, redactor, and interpreter of the religious and mythological sources of the old Norse religion. The myth of creation is given in detail only by Snorri, who edited several sources in presenting a somewhat coherent form. In the beginning was a great void (Ginnungagup). Before the Earth was formed, the world of death existed; in this world (NIFLHEIM) was a great well, from which flowed 11 rivers. South of Niflheim existed an extremely hot world (Muspell) guarded by a giant called Sutr ("the Black"). The rivers of Niflheim froze, and these frozen rivers occupied Ginnungagup. Sparks from Muspell, however, fell on the rivers and melted them. Droppings from this melting took shape as YMIR, the giant, and from Ymir's sweat other giants, male and female, were formed. Another version relates that the melting drops took the form of the primordial cow, Audumbla, who fed Ymir with her milk. The cow also licked the salty blocks of ice, shaping them into the form of the first man, who is called Buri. Buri has a son, Bor, who marries Bestla, daughter of a giant, Bolthorr; the children from this union are the gods ODIN, Vili, and Ve. Odin and his brothers kill Ymir and from his body fashion the Earth. The gods endow two tree trunks with the qualities of wit, breath, hearing, vision, and so on. These tree trunks are the archetypes of the human race; the man is Askr (an ash tree) and the woman, Embla (a creeper). They next build ASGARD, the abode of the gods. Snorri describes in other versions how a great tree, Yggdrasil, the tree of fate, arises in the center of the world. Beneath the tree is the well of fate, which is described as feminine in form; the course of human life is decided here. In some versions, the council of the gods is convened around the tree. The tree is supported by three roots; one of these roots stretches to the underworld (HEL), another to the world of the frost-giants, and the last one to the world of human beings. The welfare of the entire world is dependent on the primordial tree, Yggdrasil. The Norse deities are divided into two major groups, the Aesir and the Vanir. The most important of the Aesir are Odin, THOR, and sometimes Tyr. Their counterparts among the Vanir are Njord, FREY, and FREYA.
The Vanir symbolize riches, fertility, and fecundity. They are associated with the earth and the sea as these symbolize the sources of fecundity.
The Aesir symbolize other values: Odin is a magician, chief among the gods, and a patron of heroes; Thor, who is god of the hammer, is an atmospheric deity of thunder who presides over work. In many of the Norse mythological cycles these two kinds of deities live in peace and engage in cooperative enterprises. Several important versions, however, report that in the distant past a fierce war was fought between the Aesir and the Vanir. Some scholars have interpreted this war between the Aesir and the Vanir as the reflection of the historical encounter of the Germanic peoples with indigenous cultures.
Georges Dumezil and Jan de Vries, however, see the warfare and division among the deities as part of the unitary structure of Indo-European mythology. The familiar triad is formed by Odin and Thor, who divide the functions of the magical lawgiver; Tyr, the warrior god; and the Vanir, the fertile producers, who are defeated and subsumed into hierarchy. In the Norse cycles the conflict between the gods begins when Odin and Thor, the greatest of the gods, refuse the full status of godhood to the Vanir. The latter entreat the Aesir by sending to them a woman, Gullveig (gold-drink, gold drunkenness), who corrupts them. War then breaks out. After both sides are exhausted, each side exchanges members of its group with the other; the Vanir send Njord and his son Frey, the Aesir, MIMIR and Hoenir. The truce is celebrated by a meeting at which all the gods spit into a bowl, creating a giant called Kvasir, who is the sign of peace and harmony among the deities. Kvasir is later sacrificed and from his blood a more potent drink for the gods is made. Kvasir thus becomes the drink that inebriates deities and gives inspiration to the poets. An important mythological episode involves the deities BALDER and LOKI. Balder, one of the sons of Odin, appears as the essence of intelligence, piety, and wisdom. He holds court in a hall in heaven called Glitnir. Both gods and men come to him to settle legal disputes, and his judgments are reconciling and fair. Loki is a giant who is an Aesir by adoption. He and Odin have made a vow of friendship. Balder has a very disturbing dream in which his life is threatened. Upon reporting this dream to the Aesir, his mother, FRIGG, exacts an oath from fire and water, all metals, bird and beast, and earth and stones that they will not harm Balder. After this the Aesir begin to amuse themselves by placing Balder in the midst of them and throwing darts and stones at him. Because of the oath Balder remains unharmed. When Loki sees this spectacle, he disguises himself as a woman and inquires of Frigg why Balder suffers no harm. Frigg tells him of the oath and also tells him of the one form of nature from which she did not exact the oath, the mistletoe. Loki immediately brings the mistletoe to the assembly of the Aesir and offers it to the blind god Hoder, brother of Balder, volunteering to direct his aim so that he can participate in the game. When the mistletoe strikes Balder, he falls dead. The Aesir want to take vengeance on the perpetrator of the deed, but because of the sanctity of the court they cannot. Because Balder is not a warrior and does not die in battle, he does not go to VALHALLA, the hall of slain heroes, but into the domain of Hel, keeper of the dead. When Odin requests his release, Hel responds that if everything in the world both dead and alive weeps for Balder, then he can return to the Aesir; otherwise he will remain with Hel. The Aesir send messengers throughout the world requiring all nature, humanity, gods, and beasts to weep for Balder. All respond except a giantess, Thokk (Loki in disguise), whose refusal to weep forces Balder to remain in Hel's domain. The Aesir finally succeed in capturing Loki and chaining him to prevent him from carrying out his evil tricks. The prediction is, however, that he will one day break these chains. This will be the sign for the loosing of all evil, monsters and giants, to attack the gods in the great battle of RAGNAROK, the twilight of the gods. Odin will be devoured by the wolf FENRIR, who will then be killed by Vidar, a son of Odin. Terrible fights will rage among the gods and the forces of evil until finally the primeval god HEIMDALL and Loki come face to face and kill each other. The Earth will then be destroyed by fire, and the entire universe will sink back into the sea. This final destruction will be followed by a rebirth, the Earth reemerging from the sea, verdant and teeming with vegetation. The sons of the dead Aesir will return to Asgard and reign, as did their fathers.
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BL Lacertae lies in the southern parts of the small northern constellation of Lacerta. Though a very faint object as seen from Earth, it is also highly variable, ranging in apparent brightness between about fourteenth and seventeenth magnitude. In the late 1920's this led to its being classified as a variable star, and designated using the standard variable naming conventions as 'BL Lacertae'.
It was not until some forty years later that this initial classification was found to be mistaken: BL Lacertae is not a star at all, but an immensely distant object, probably some 900 million light years beyond the Milky Way. At the heart of a nebulous, near-spherical Elliptical Galaxy is a dense and compact core. The black hole within that core causes an intense jet of matter to be emitted in nearly the line of sight of an observer on Earth, and oscillations in that jet are thought to be the source of its shifts in brightness (and also of intense bursts of radio activity).
Though the first object of this type to be identified, BL Lacertae is not unique, and active galaxies of this kind discovered subsequently are designated 'BL Lacertae Objects' (typically abbreviated to 'BL Lac Objects').
Related Entries
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Subject Index
The Battle of Badr
On the morning of 17th Ramadan, 2 A.H., the great Battle of Badr, the first battle in the history of Islam, took place. At that battle, Allah granted the believers victory over the polytheists.
Ammar was fighting with enthusiasm. When the polytheists escaped, Ammar saw Abu Jahal. So, he remembered those days when Abu Jahal tortured the Muslims and tortured his parents. Now, the swords of the persecuted got revenge on the unjust. Ammar looked at the sky and thanked Allah, the Glorified, for his victory.
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You are here
Early Childhood Activity Bank
Reindeer Treat
Remind children that reindeer are wild animals that live in the Arctic, eating grasses, moss, and leaves. Wild reindeer, called caribou, have two layers of wooly fur to keep them warm. After discussing these animals, invite children to make a yummy snack. Give each child a tart-sized graham cracker crust. Scoop 1 cup of chocolate pudding into the crust. Let children add two Cheerios for eyes, two pretzel sticks for antlers, and a red jelly bean for a nose. Enjoy!
Find more activities for early childhood classrooms in these archives:
Activities by Sue LaBella
Education World®
Copyright © 2009 Education World
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Adirondacks State Park
The placid side of the Adirondacks: The view from the peak of Little Whiteface (Nathan Borchelt)
The Iroquois and the Algonquin were the Adirondacks' first peoples. They ventured into the mountains to hunt, and left for more moderate lower elevations in the winter.
Except for trappers and military posts on Lake George and Champlain, Europeans largely left the area alone until the 1840s, when logging began in earnest. By the 1850s, New York was the leading lumber producing state. Over the course of the next fifty years, the State of New York would acquire a huge chunk of land after loggers had stripped them of timber and then moved on, defaulting on their property taxes.
But early on, there was another sort of interest in the Adirondacks. The first party to survey the mountains, in 1837, included a painter named Charles Cromwell Ingham, who produced paintings that astonished many who never realized that a great wilderness lay at the northeast's doorstep. In 1857 William Stillman of Cambridge, Massachusetts started the Philosophers' Camp, locating it first on Follansby Pond near Long Lake and later moving it to Amperand Pond near Saranac Lake. Notable scientists and philosophers came to the Philosophers' Camp to hike, paddle, fish—and talk and write. Guests included Ralph Waldo Emerson, the great American philosopher, and Louis Agassiz, who developed the theory of how glaciers affected the landscape, including that of the Adirondacks.
One of the first outdoor guidebooks—William H.H. Murray's Adventures in the Wilderness—sparked popular interest in the Adirondacks and the rustic life as a way to recreate. Business boomed at rough-hewn lodges such as Paul Smiths. The legendary Adirondack guide was born in this era, combining acute wilderness skills—the ability to find just the right fishing hole or hunting spot—with talent as a rollicking campfire entertainer and the knack for pampering the rich while making them think they were roughing it. Wanting their own castles, the rich of the era started to build opulent private lodges, known as "great camps," which had an architectural style that hybridized Swiss chalets with American log cabins. William West Durant was the great style-setter of the great camp, building properties that were later bought by the Vanderbilts and the Rockefellers when Durant went broke.
Even though the Adirondacks were swarming with guides and tourists, no white person had scaled Mt. Marcy until Verplanck Colvin in 1872. Colvin was a surveyor who ventured into the Adirondacks to trace the source of the mighty Hudson River. Colvin would spend the next 30 years surveying the entire Adirondack region, getting to know the mountains better than anyone of the time.
Colvin was a major proponent for protecting the park from overdevelopment and timber harvesting. In 1885, the New York State Legislature created the "Adirondack Forest Preserve." Protecting the Hudson River Watershed—and New York City's water supply—was a major impetus for this legislation. The metropolis was growing, and silt was building up in the harbor. But preserving the Adirondacks as a "pleasuring ground" was also a major reason. The law was strengthened in 1892, and then again 1894, with a law dictating the groundbreaking concept that the forest should remain "forever wild."
The original 681,374 acres of the forest preserve have grown to include more than 2.6 million acres of public land. Most of the park is privately owned, subject to stringent development laws.
Published: 29 Apr 2002 | Last Updated: 15 Sep 2010
Details mentioned in this article were accurate at the time of publication
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Social Studies
Class Blog
Miss Mitchell's Third Grade Class > Reading > Unit 1 Friendship > The Legend of Damon and Pythias
The Legend of Damon and Pythias
The Legend of Damon and Pythias
Spelling List- short vowel sounds
1. brand
2. candy
3. plan
4. hobby
5. best
6. read
7. us
8. top
9. jump
10. send
11. tell
12. prison
13. last
14. robbers
15. struggle
Vocabulary Words
1. tyrant- a harsh, unjust ruler
2. rebel- to resist a ruler's power
3. appointed- to name officially
4. traitor- someone who betrays another's trust
5. honorable- deserving of honor or respect
Study Guide Questions
1. The teller of the story uses only two names. What are the names and why do you think none of the other characters was given a name?
2. Pythias told his friend that he was worried about what will happen to his mother and sister after his execution. If he was telling the truth, why do you think he endangered himself and the well-being of his family by standing up to the king?
3. What was the importance of Pythias’s integrity to this story?
4. The king called Pythias a traitor for opposing the laws of the country. The king also recognized Pythias as a champion of the people of the country. Do you agree with the king; was Pythias a traitor? Explain your answer.
5. What do you think the world would be like if most of the people were like Damon and Pythias? Explain your answer.
Reading Strategies
-Asking Questions
-Monitoring and Adjusting Reading Speed
Comprehension Skills
Last modified at 8/13/2009 1:24 PM by Miss Mitchell
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Drum roll
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
A drum roll (or roll for short) is a technique the percussionist employs to produce a sustained sound on a percussion instrument. Rolls are used by composers to sustain the sound and create other effects, the most common of which is using a roll to build anticipation.
Snare drum roll[edit]
The most common snare drum roll is the closed (or "buzz") roll. The open roll (or "double-stroke roll") is played with double strokes alternating between the left and right hands; the closed roll or multiple-bounce roll is produced by applying slightly more pressure to the fulcrum upon impact which allows for the stick to bounce many times on the drum head. One stick hits the head slightly before the other bouncing stick is pulled up from the head. This produces a near-continuous sound when the technique is mastered.
Other than the open, double-stroke roll there are many other rolls and rudiments that sound like rolls when they are played fast enough (like the freehand technique or single paradiddle). In the table below, lower-case letters represent grace notes (drags, flams etc.) and hyphens represent rests.
Rudiment Sticking pattern
Single-stroke roll RLRLRLRLRL
Double-stroke roll RRLLRRLL
Triple-stroke roll (or French Roll) RRRLLLRRRLLL
Single paradiddle RLRR LRLL
Double paradiddle RLRLRR LRLRLL
Five-stroke roll RRLLR
Seven-stroke roll RRLLRRL- LLRRLLR
Also, the six-stroke roll, perhaps a misleading name, is often used in snare solo and marching percussion situations. It has four variations; each is a quarter note in length and consists of two double strokes (RRLL) and two singles (R L). Doubles:
Six-stroke rolls
R L RRLL(paradiddle-diddle) L R LLRR(paradiddle-diddle left hand based)
Timpani roll[edit]
Rolls on timpani are almost exclusively single-stroked. Due to the instruments' resonance, a fairly open roll is usually used, although the exact rate at which a roll is played depends greatly on the acoustic conditions, the size of the drum, the pitch to which is it tuned and the sticks being used. Higher pitches on timpani require a faster roll to maintain a sustained sound; some timpanists choose to use a buzz roll on higher notes at lower volumes; although there is no definite rule, most timpanists who employ this technique do so on a high "G", and above. In the end, it often comes down to the discretion of the timpanist.
Keyboard roll[edit]
These are similar to the timpani rolls in that they are done nearly the same way and are both single-stroked. Yarn mallets usually can be rolled much more easily on a marimba than plastic ones can be on a xylophone, because the extra reverberation of a marimba will mask the silent gaps between strokes. For this reason, the rolls can be much slower and still effective. But for xylophone and orchestra bells a much swifter roll is required, especially for rubber or plastic mallets. A brass mallet used with orchestra bells will add extra vibration to aid in the smoothing of the sound.
To get these faster rolls, percussionists (keyboard, snare and timpani) all often use the muscles of their fingers instead of those of the wrists. The fingers have a shorter rotation length and can move faster with less effort than the wrist. Finger muscles are usually not as well developed, so percussionists, especially of the middle or high school age, will be seen twirling or rolling their sticks and mallets through their fingers rapidly. This differs in some way from the twirling majorettes perform.
Fulcrum roll/one handed roll/gravity roll/Freehand roll[edit]
The fulcrum roll is a roll in which the rim of the snare is used as a fulcrum for the drummers stick. To perform a consistent fulcrum roll the stick must come in contact with the head and rim at exactly the same time and then tip down towards the drummer. The drummer must then raise the stick to produce an up stroke. The wrist of the drummer also must stay straight, as if shaking someone's hand. This is one of the easier and more commonly used forms of a "one handed roll". The second common, albeit more difficult form consists of the drummer bouncing the stick alternately off of the middle and ring fingers.
In most recent music, all three types of rolls are notated as tremolos, with slashes through the note stem:
One slash indicates dividing the note in two.
For Example: A sixteenth note with a single slash on it indicates two thirty second notes.
Two slashes indicates dividing the note in two, and two again.
For Example: A sixteenth note with a double slash on it indicates two thirty second notes with one slash on each one, and that indicates four sixty fourth notes.
Three slashes indicates dividing the note in two, in two again, and in two a third time.
For Example: A sixteenth note with a triple slash on it indicates two thirty second notes with two slashes on each one, and that indicates four sixty fourth notes with a diddle on each note, and that indicates eight 128th notes.
See also[edit]
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Who's That?
Art/Social Studies
Children will create a classroom mural to help learn one another's names.
What You Need
What to Do
1. Take an individual headshot of each child in the class.
2. Cut butcher paper to fit the bulletin board.
3. Paste pictures of the children on the butcher paper, leaving enough room for the children to draw their bodies below their headshots.
4. Have the children draw their bodies underneath their pictures.
5. Invite the children to write their names below their portraits. Help if necessary.
6. As part of the daily routine, have the children chant “Look at” and then the name of each child, as you all point to his or her picture. End the chant by having everyone say, “Look at us!” as they stretch their arms open wide.
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Total population
Extinct as a tribe
Regions with significant populations
South Carolina, United States
Traditional tribal religion
Related ethnic groups
Arawak (theorized)
The Cusabo (also Corsaboy) were a group of historic Native American tribes who lived along the coast of the Atlantic Ocean in what is now South Carolina, approximately between present-day Charleston and south to the Savannah River, at the time of European encounter. English colonists often referred to them as one of the Settlement Indians of South Carolina, tribes who settled among the colonists.
Five of the groups were recorded by the settlers as having spoken a common language, although one distinctly different from the major language families known nearby, such as Algonquian, Iroquoian, Muskogean and Siouan. With the English settling on their land at Charleston beginning in the 17th century, the Cusabo developed a relationship of accommodation with the colony that persisted through the early 18th century. After the Yamasee War of 1712, surviving tribal members migrated to join the Creek or Catawba.
Political divisions[edit]
Subtribes of the Cusabo included the Ashepoo, Combahee, Coosa (also spelled Coosaw, Cussoe, or Kussoe; not the same people as the earlier Coosa chiefdom of the Mississippian culture in Georgia), Edisto (also spelled Edistow), Escamacu (also St. Helena Indians), Etiwan (also Irwan or Eutaw), Kiawah, Stono, Wando, Wappoo and Wimbee.[1] Non-Cusabo Settlement Indians listed in a 1696 report include the Sewee and Santee.[2]
Region Carolina
Extinct 18th century
Language codes
ISO 639-3 None (mis)
Glottolog cusa1237[3]
Although in the 1930s anthropologist John Swanton theorized that the Cusabo may have spoken a form of the Muskogean language, more recent research disputes this. The language spoken by the Cusabo is virtually unknown and now extinct. It did not appear to be related to other known language families on the North American continent.
There is evidence that at least five tribes on the coast, in the territory from the lower Savannah to the Wando River (east of Charleston), spoke a common language which was different from the Guale and Sewee languages of neighboring peoples. It is likely the Ashepoo, Combahee, Escamaçu, Etiwan, and Kiawah also spoke this language, which has been referred to as Cusaboan. Only a few words (mostly town names) of this language were recorded in the 16th century by the French explorer René Goulaine de Laudonnière. (One example was Skorrye or Skerry, meaning "bad" or "enemy"). Most words lack translations. Approximately 100 place names and 12 personal names in Cusabo have survived.
The place names do not seem to be related to Algonquian, Iroquoian, Muskogean languages or Siouan languages used by other South Carolina coastal and Piedmont tribes. (In places where the Sewee and Santee lived, the place names are in the Catawban languages.)
John R. Swanton thought that the bou or boo element, presumably the same bou in the Cusabo word Westo boe meaning "Westoe River", which occurs in many coastal place names, is related to the Choctaw -bok (river). He speculated that Cusabo was related to the Muskogean family. Later scholars think this relation of sounds might have been a coincidence without meaning, especially since the older Choctaw form was bayok (small river, river forming part of a delta). They believe that Cusabo was a different language.[4]
Blair Rudes has suggested that the -bo suffix and other evidence may indicate a relationship to the Arawakan languages of the Caribbean indigenous peoples.[5] If true, it would mean that parts of the Atlantic Coast may have been settled by indigenous peoples from the Caribbean islands.
The names of many subtribes of the Cusabo and Catawba may be recognized among the provinces that were described by Francisco de Chicora (he was a native who was kidnapped from the Pee Dee River area by Spanish in 1521, and accompanied an expedition back to Spain, where he learned the language. His Testimony of Francisco de Chicora was recorded by the court chronicler Peter Martyr and published in 1525.) In 1526, Lucas Vázquez de Ayllón's party visited this area and recorded some names.
The English colony of South Carolina was founded in the midst of Cusabo land, and the loose group of tribes became closely tied to the colony. In the first decade after the founding of Charles Town in 1670, there was conflict and warfare between some of the Cusabo and the new colony. The Kussoe (Coosa) subtribe was the first to come into violent conflict; Carolina declared war against them in October 1671. The Kussoe went into hiding but remained in the area. In the early years of the colony, it was not difficult for Indians to "lie low" if they wanted. For three years, colonial records make no mention of the Kussoe or the war.[2]
In 1674 records note an alleged Kussoe attack in which three colonists were killed. During the same year the Stono, a Cusabo subtribe, fought with the colony. This conflict (not to be confused with the later Stono Rebellion of African slaves) was similar to the Kussoe War. Colonial records are unclear on how the Kussoe-Stono War ended, except that it was resolved in South Carolina's favor. The colony forced the tribes to cede large tracts of rich land. In addition, they required the Kussoe to make a symbolic tribute payment of one deerskin per month. The Kussoe, Stono, and other Cusabo subtribes remained in the area, living in relative accord with the colonists until the Yamasee War of 1715.[2]
One of South Carolina's first powerful Indian allies was the Westo tribe, who during the 1670s conducted numerous slave raid attacks on nearly every other Indian group in the region. Contemporary scholars believe the Westo were an Iroquoian tribe who had migrated from the Great Lakes area, possibly an offshoot of the Erie during the Beaver Wars.[6][7][8] By the late 1670s, South Carolina colonists came into direct conflict with the Westo. The colony demanded that the Westo cease attacking the Cusabo and other Settlement Indians. Continued Westo attacks played a role in South Carolina's decision to destroy the Westo, which they did with Indian assistance, in 1679-1680.[2]
By the turn of the eighteenth century, the Cusabo had become fairly integrated into South Carolina's society, although they retained their tribal identities and lived in their own villages. A relationship developed between the two groups, with the Indians serving as a kind of police and security force in exchange for trade goods, weapons, and money. The colony paid the Cusabo for killing "vermin" such as wolves, "tigers" (cougars), and bears. The Cusabo also hunted game animals and sold the meat to colonists. But their chief service was in capturing fugitive African slaves. South Carolina colonial authorities tried to encourage hostility between the two groups to avoid an alliance between them. They passed laws to reward Indians for capturing runaway slaves, and absolved them of liability if runaways were killed in the process. In contrast, Africans were punished severely for attacking Indians. As late as 1750, reportedly more than 400 "ancient native" (or Settlement Indians) lived within South Carolina, with their "chief service" being "hunting Game, destroying Vermin and Beasts of Prey, and in capturing Runaway slaves."[2]
During the Tuscarora War, the Cusabo joined the first South Carolina army under John Barnwell. They fought against the Tuscarora in North Carolina in 1711 and 1712. Part of the "Yamasee Company", the Cusabo troops numbered fewer than 15 men.[2]
In 1712, South Carolina granted Palawana Island, near Saint Helena Island, to the Cusabo, where many were already living.[1] Barnwell took a census in early 1715 that listed the Cusabo ("Corsaboy") as living in five villages and having a population of 95 men and 200 women and children. The "Itwan", a Cusabo subtribe, was listed separately as living in one village with a population of 80 men and 160 women and children.[2]
During the Yamasee War of 1715, the Cusabo were one of the few Indian groups who sided with the colony of South Carolina.[1] After the war, most of them migrated out of the area, joining either the Creek or Catawba to the west and south.[2]
1. ^ a b c "Cusabo", South Carolina Indians, South Carolina Information Highway
2. ^ a b c d e f g h Gallay, Alan (2002). The Indian Slave Trade: The Rise of the English Empire in the American South 1670-1717. Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-10193-7.
3. ^ Nordhoff, Sebastian; Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin, eds. (2013). "Cusabo". Glottolog. Leipzig: Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology.
4. ^ Goddard, Ives. (2005). "The indigenous languages of the Southeast", in Anthropological Linguistics, 47 (1), 1-60.; Martin, Jack. (2004). "Languages", in R. D. Fogelson (Ed.), Handbook of North American Indians: Southeast (Vol. 14, pp. 68-86). Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution.; Waddell, Gene. (2004). "Cusabo", in R. D. Fogelson (Ed.), Handbook of North American Indians: Southeast (Vol. 14, pp. 254-264). Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution.
5. ^ Rudes, Blair A. "Pre-Columbian Links to the Caribbean: Evidence Connecting Cusabo to Taino", paper presented at Language Variety in the South III conference, Tuscaloosa, AL, 16 April 2004.
6. ^ Worth, John E. (2000), "The Lower Creeks: Origins and Early History", in Bonnie G. McEwan (ed.), Indians of the Greater Southeast: Historical Archaeology and Ethnohistory, Gainesville, FL: University Press of Florida, p.17
7. ^ Bowne, Eric E. (2000), "The Rise and Fall of the Westo Indians", Early Georgia: Journal of the Society for Georgia Archaeology 28 (1): 56–78, OCLC 1567184
8. ^ Bowne, Eric E. (2005), The Westo Indians: Slave Traders of the Early Colonial South, Tuscaloosa, AL: University of Alabama Press
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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Total population
Extinct as tribe
Regions with significant populations
North Florida and southeastern Georgia
Mocama dialect of the Timucua language
Related ethnic groups
The Mocama were a Native American people who lived in the coastal areas of what are now northern Florida and southeastern Georgia.[1] A Timucua group, they spoke the dialect known as Mocama, the best-attested dialect of the Timucua language. Their territory extended from about the Altamaha River in Georgia to south of St. Augustine, Florida, covering the Sea Islands and the inland waterways, including the mouth of the St. Johns River in present-day Jacksonville and the Intracoastal. At the time of contact with Europeans, there were two major chiefdoms among the Mocama, the Saturiwa and the Tacatacuru, each of which evidently had authority over multiple villages.
The Spanish came to refer to the entire area as the Mocama Province, and incorporated it into their mission system. The Mocama Province was severely depopulated in the 17th century by infectious disease and warfare with other Indian tribes and the English colonies to the north. Surviving Mocama refugees relocated to St. Augustine. Together with Guale survivors, 89 "mission Indians" evacuated with the Spanish to Cuba in 1763, after they ceded the territory to Great Britain.
Archaeological research dates human habitation in the area eventually known as the Mocama Province to at least 2500 BC.[1] The area has yielded some of the oldest known pottery from what is now the United States, uncovered by a University of North Florida on Black Hammock Island in Jacksonville, Florida's Timucuan Ecological and Historic Preserve. The team also excavated more recent artifacts contemporary with the Mocama chiefdoms and some that indicate a Spanish mission.[1] Around AD 1000 peoples of the area were engaged in long-distance trading with Mississippian culture centers, including Cahokia (in present-day Illinois) and Macon, Georgia.[1] Before and during European contact, the peoples of the region spoke the Mocama dialect of the Timucua language and participated in similar cultures, for instance in their use of distinctive grog-tempered pottery known as San Pedro pottery.[2]
The Mocama dialect is the best attested dialect of the Timucua language. Some scholars, including Jerald T. Milanich and Edgar H. Sturtevant, consider the dialect known as Agua Salada, spoken in an unspecified stretch of the Florida coast south of the Mocama Province, to be identical. However, other evidence suggests that Agua Salada was distinct, and more closely related to the western dialects like Potano than to Mocama.[3]
The French Huguenot explorers, who first arrived in Florida in 1562, recorded two major chiefdoms in the Mocama region at that time, the Saturiwa and the Tacatacuru. The Saturiwa, whose main village was on Fort George Island, were friendly towards the French and aided them in establishing Fort Caroline in their territory. Huguenot leader René Goulaine de Laudonnière records that their chief, who was known as Saturiwa, had sovereignty over thirty villages and their chiefs, ten of whom were his "brothers".[4] These villages were located around the mouth of the St. Johns River and nearby inland waterways. Other Mocama-speaking groups lived in the coastal areas to the north, from Amelia Island in Florida to St. Simons Island in Georgia. The Tacatacuru chiefdom was centered on Cumberland Island and evidently controlled villages on the coast.[4]
When the Spanish destroyed the French stronghold of Fort Caroline, both the Saturiwa and the Tacatacuru aided the French and opposed the Spanish, but they eventually made peace. As Mocama was spoken across the area, the Spanish came to refer to it as the Mocama Province, and incorporated it into their mission system. It was one of the four provinces that made up the bulk of the Spanish mission effort in the region, the others being the Timucua Province (covering the Timucua groups to the west of the St. Johns River), the Guale Province, and the Apalachee Province. The Spanish founded three major missions in the Mocama Province: San Juan del Puerto at Saturiwa on Fort George Island, San Pedro de Mocama at Tacatacuru on Cumberland Island, and Santa Maria de Sena between them on Amelia Island.[1][5]
Due to severe population losses from infectious disease and warfare with northern Indian tribes and the English from South Carolina, the Mocama polity disintegrated in the 17th century. After that, the Spanish and later settlers used the term "Mocama" to refer to the land where the chiefdoms had been. Between 1675 and 1680, the Westo tribe, backed by the English colonies of South Carolina and Virginia, along with attacks by English-supported pirates, destroyed the Spanish mission system in Mocama.
The few remaining "refugee missions" were destroyed by South Carolina's invasion of Spanish Florida in 1702 during Queen Anne's War. By 1733, the Mocama and Guale chiefdoms had become too depopulated and helpless to resist James Oglethorpe's founding of the English colony of Georgia.
In their colonial period, the Spanish established a missionary province at the Guale chiefdom just north of Mocama, on the Georgia coast between the Altamaha River and the Savannah River. Its history was similar to that of Mocama, and its fate was the same. Remnants of both chiefdoms retreated south to St. Augustine. In 1763, their descendants were among the 89 "mission Indians" evacuated to Cuba with the Spanish.
1. ^ a b c d e Soergel, Matt (October 18, 2009). "The Mocama: New name for an old people". The Florida Times-Union. Retrieved July 20, 2010.
2. ^ Ashley, p. 127.
3. ^ Granberry, p. 6.
4. ^ a b Milanich 1996, pp. 48–49.
5. ^ Ashley, p. 135.
Further reading[edit]
• Granberry, Julian. (1993). A Grammar and Dictionary of the Timucua Language (3rd ed.). Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press. (1st edition 1984).
• Worth, John E., The Struggle for the Georgia Coast: An Eighteenth-Century Spanish Retrospective on Guale and Mocama, (New York: American Museum of Natural History, 1995; distributed by University of Georgia Press).
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Alcatraz was a military fort before it became a federal prison. In 1854, the United States government erected a lighthouse on the island. In 1859, the Army established a fort on Alcatraz to defend San Francisco Bay.
During the Civil War [1861-1865], the Army imprisoned deserters, insubordinate soldiers, and Confederate sympathizers on the island. In 1868, the Army established a permanent military prison on Alcatraz.
Soldiers convicted of crimes in court-martials [the military version of civilian criminal trials] could be sentenced to imprisonment at Alcatraz. At first, inmates were housed in various structures that the Army converted for use as prisons. In 1909, the Army demolished much of the original fort, and started building a new prison there.
Because of high operating costs, the Army abandoned Alcatraz in 1934. It turned the facility over to the Federal Bureau of Prisons. The Bureau modernized it into a maximum security prison for high-risk civilian criminals.
Pipe GOGA 32291
Binoculars GOGA 18598
Bullet GOGA 106 Button GOGA 8374 Button GOGA 8377 Paddle GOGA 9232 Paddle GOGA 9233 Sherd GOGA 9380 Cap Pouch GOGA 9906
Bowl Sherd GOGA 9913 Sign GOGA 10004 Sign GOGA 10005 Catridge GOGA 10032 Insignias GOGA 17962 Antiseptic GOGA 9324 Menu GOGA 18324a1
Announcement GOGA 18324b Holster GOGA 9669
Historic Photographs Slide ShowHistoric Photographs Slide ShowGlover Case File Slide ShowGlover Case File Slide ShowBelt GOGA 107Helmet GOGA 10047
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For further information visit the NCETM website
Visit the NCETM website for further maths news
murphy's law special issue
Issue 7 - February 2001
Secondary Worksheet - Putting Murphy's Law To the test
tumbling toast test logo According to Murphy's Law, "If things can go wrong, they will go wrong". For instance, if the toast we made for breakfast slides off our plate, Murphy's Law says it will usually land butter-side down. Many people think that's exactly what happens - but are they right, and why?
This worksheet describes a series of experiments to find out the truth behind Murphy's Law of Toast. You will need:
1. A slice of lightly-toasted bread (toasted well enough to turn the bread rigid, but not burnt and fragile)
2. Some butter.
3. A plate without too high a rim (to ensure the toast slides off smoothly - a paper plate would be fine)
4. A thick marker pen
5. Some newspaper to spread on the ground
There are three experiments. The first is designed simply to find out if it really is true that if our toast slides off a plate and on to the floor, it usually lands butter-side down. The second experiment then investigates the most common explanation for toast landing butter-side down: that it's due to the presence of the butter. Finally, the third experiment investigates one way of curing Murphy's Law of Toast.
Experiment 1: Does toast usually land butter-side down ?
1. Find yourself a clear area of uncarpeted floor, and spread out some newspaper.
2. Take your slice of toast and spread some butter on one side of it - just the usual amount you'd put on for a snack.
3. Place the toast, butter-side up, on the plate and hold the plate at around waist-height (as you would when, say, walking to the breakfast-table).
4. Now, standing over where you've spread the newspaper, steadily tilt the plate downward until the toast slides off and tumbles to the ground
5. Make a note of whether it landed butter-side up, or butter-side down.
Carry out a series of 20 drops - this will help reduce the effect on one-off flukes and lucky bounces on the final result.
Experiment 2: Is the butter to blame ?
Many people think that it's the butter that's to blame for the butter-down landings. If that's true, then unbuttered toast should slide off the plate but land facing the same way up as it started. If it does the same as buttered toast and turns face-down, however, the cause of the face-down landings must lie in the toast itself.
To find out, repeat experiment 1 with a fresh piece of unbuttered toast. But this time, instead of butter, just put a letter "B" on one side with the marker pen. Then go through steps 3 to 5, starting with the "B" side uppermost on the toast, and see how many times the toast slides off the plate and lands with the "B" side facing down (the equivalent of butter-down landings).
1. Again, carry this out 20 times, and record your findings.
Experiment 3: can we beat Murphy's Law of Toast ?
When toast slides off a plate, it topples over the edge and begins to spin. It's been suggested that if only we humans were taller, we'd hold our plates higher off the ground - and thus give the tumbling toast more chance of completing a full 360-degree turn. Calculations suggest that toast tumbling from a height of at least 2.5 metres stands a better chance of landing butter-side uppermost.
But would taller humans really stand a better chance of beating Murphy's Law of Toast ? To find out, repeat Experiment 1 with the buttered toast again - this time letting the toast slide off the plate from a height of 2.5 metres. Repeat 20 times, and record your findings.
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Murphy's Law Of Toast
Murphy's Law At work !
Primary Worksheet
Secondary Worksheet
Test Results
Law of Toast is true
the Cosmic Connection
The Winners
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Easing Racism with Uruguay's Answer to Brazilian Samba ; Once Ignored as the Music of Poor African Slaves, the Hot Rhythms of Candombe Are Gaining in Popularity - and Uniting Blacks and Whites
Article excerpt
Young men wearing wool caps and tightly zipped jackets lay drums on their sides to tune them in front of an open fire. Sparks fly as the men toss in crumpled newspapers to keep the fire going in the frigid night air of Uruguay's unseasonably cold winter.
After the fire's heat tightens the drum skins to a common pitch, the musicians strap on their tambor drums and begin to beat out Uruguay's infectious, African-based rhythm known as candombe.
The resurgent interest in Uruguay's answer to Brazil's samba is part of what many call a broader effort to end racial discrimination and achieve political power for the nation's marginalized black people.
"Candombe has become part of the identity of the Uruguayan people: whites, blacks, and mixed race," says musician Eduardo Da Luz. At the same time, he says, the growing interest in the African roots of candombe reflects an incipient black cultural and political movement.
Candombe originated during the colonial era when African slaves brought their religious drumming, singing, and dancing to Uruguay. They played three types of tambores, drums that look a little like potbellied congas. A drummer creates unique sounds by striking the drum with both his hand and a stick.
For much of this century, candombe was only performed during Carnival and at black family events. Uruguay's white upper crust shunned the music, similar to what happened in the early days of jazz in the United States.
"A lot of Uruguayans heard candombe as a music of poor people," says Mr. Da Luz. "It took a long time for candombe to win acceptance here."
Black Uruguayans are also fighting to win acceptance, says Beatrice Ramirez, Montevideo's first black city councillor. She notes they have never been permitted to reach the upper levels of the military or business. Blacks, she says, earn 20 percent lower wages than whites for similar work.
In addition to her governmental responsibilities, Ms. …
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A traffic light is installed at a junction of a railroad and aroad. The light is controlled by two switches in the rails placed 1mile apart on either side of the junction. A switch is turned onwhen the train is over it and is turned off otherwise. The trafficlight changes from green (logic 0) to red (logic 1) when thebeginning of the train is 1 mile from the junction. The lightchanges back to green when the end of the train is 1 mile away fromthe junction. Assume that the length of the train is less than 2miles.
(a) Obtain a primitive flow table for the circuit.
(b) Show that the flow table can be reduced to four rows.
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No answer yet. Submit this
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Borne on a Black Current
For thousands of years, the Pacific Ocean’s strong currents have swept shipwrecked Japanese sailors onto American shores
The Kuroshio, or "Black Current," is the Pacific Ocean's answer to the Atlantic's Gulf Stream. (© Alain Nogues / Corbis Sygma)
(Continued from page 2)
As the centuries progressed, the number of Japanese coastal vessels, hence the number of drifters, soared. By the mid-1800s an average of two Japanese derelicts appeared each year along the shipping lanes from California to Hawaii. Four showed up near Hawaii in one thirty-year period in the early nineteenth century; at least five crewmen survived. Many other junks passed unseen along less-traveled routes. During my visits to Sitka, I was afforded the privilege of interviewing many Tlingit elders. I would tell them one sea story, and they would reciprocate with an ancient tale of their own. One elder, Fred Hope, told me that every village along the West Coast has passed down a tale of a Japanese vessel drifting ashore nearby. To the south, around the storm-wracked mouth of the Columbia River, strandings were so frequent that the Chinook Indians developed a special word, tlohon-nipts, “those who drift ashore,” for the new arrivals.
Then, in 1854, a very different landing took place on the other side of the ocean. Commodore Matthew Perry and his “black ships” arrived to open Japan to the world. Perry found skilled interpreters—Japanese who had never left Japan but were fluent in English—waiting to meet him. How could this be in the hermetically sealed hermit shogunate?
The answer lies in the drifts along the Kuroshio. In October 1813, the junk Tokujo Maru left Tokyo, returning to Toba after delivering the shogun’s annual tribute. The nor’westers swept it out to sea and it drifted for 530 days, passing within a mile of California when offshore winds blew it out to sea. Eleven of the fourteen men aboard perished. Then, 470 miles off Mexico, an American brig hailed the hulk and rescued the three survivors. After four years away, the Tokujo Maru’s captain, Jukichi, returned to Japan. Somehow he escaped execution and secretly recorded his travels in A Captain’s Diary. Though it was officially banned, Jukichi’s Diary intrigued and influenced Japanese scholars, paving the way for Commodore Perry and for another foreign guest who arrived six years before him. “Unquestionably,” James W. Borden, the U.S. Commissioner to Hawaii, remarked in 1860, “the kindness which had been extended to shipwrecked Japanese seamen was among the most powerful reasons which finally led to the opening of that country to foreigners and foreign commerce.”
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Figure 2.
Immature population structure. a) Eggs develop through four discrete stages and each stage is one day. There are two cohorts of eggs, Wolbachia uninfected and infected. During development, eggs move through each stage consecutively, and the number of eggs advancing to the next stage reflects the product of the number of eggs present and SE, daily egg survivorship (Table S1). All eggs hatch after four days except a proportion of eggs hatch at day three (H3, Table S1). b) Larvae develop through s discrete stages, where s is an arbitrary number of developmental stages (s = 30). Larvae are divided into four categories: Wolbachia infected/uninfected and male/female. Larvae move R developmental stages in each time step, where R is the number of developmental stages a larval cohort will progress (Equation 1). The number of larvae progressing from their current development stage, e.g. L2, to their next developmental stage, L2+R, is equal to the product of the number of larvae in a developmental stage and larval survival (Equation 2). Larval survival and development are density dependent. If larvae are Wolbachia infected, they are subject also to the parameter RLV (Table 1), which can reduce the number of surviving larvae. Larvae that reach the last developmental stage become pupae. c) Pupae progress through two discrete development stages and are tracked similar to eggs. Each pupal developmental stage is one day and pupae are subject to SP, daily pupal survivorship (Table S1).
Crain et al. BMC Evolutionary Biology 2011 11:290 doi:10.1186/1471-2148-11-290
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Guy Fawkes Night
Guy Fawkes Night lesson plan
Find out how Bonfire Night is celebrated in England today then use Crayola® Gel Markers to make your own bonfire and fireworks scene.
• 1.
Research information about Guy Fawkes Day, a British holiday. Why is it observed? Festive night parties, with blazing bonfires, are common during this November 5 holiday celebration. Fireworks flash overhead to symbolize dynamite that could have exploded in 1605 when conspirators set out to destroy the British Parliament.
• 2.
To create a contemporary Guy Fawkes Night street scene, cut a yellow, orange, and red construction paper bonfire with Crayola Scissors. Cut logs for the bonfire, too. Glue the bonfire to black construction paper with Crayola Glue Sticks. Use Crayola Glitter Glue to add sparks. Dry.
• 3.
Draw a crowd of people bundled in winter clothes and huddled around the fire using Crayola Gel Markers.
• 4.
Fill the sky overhead with a colorful fireworks display using your gel markers, and glitter glue.
• Students use electronic resources to research Guy Hawkes Day. Research is organized into a summary paragraph. Students writing should accompany the original sketches created for this lesson.
• Who led the British government at the time of Guy Hawkes? Research this leader and the role religion may have played in this event. Since that time, how has the British government changed?
• Guy Hawkes was found with three possessions: a darkened lantern, a tinder box, and three matches. Why did he have these items? What was he missing?
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Cite This Page
To Go
The Charge of the Light Brigade
The Charge of the Light Brigade
by Alfred, Lord Tennyson
Speaker Point of View
Have you ever seen a big-budget Hollywood movie about World War II? There's always a lot of fighting and action, and then, sometimes, at the end, it cuts to an old veteran remembering the war and his lost buddies. We imagine that guy narrating this poem.
To us, it seems like the speaker was there. He remembers the charge, and he wants to pass on the story of the heroes who charged and died on that day. You can hear the power of his memories and his patriotism behind every word. He sees the tragedy of war, but also the positive side, the things it brings out in men. He wants you to see this too. He wants to stir you up, to make sure you don't forget. Sometimes he might get a little carried away, maybe he's a little sentimental sometimes, but it's impossible not to like him and respect him.
That's how we picture the speaker. How do you see him?
Next Page: Setting
Previous Page: Form and Meter
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- Access Genealogy - http://www.accessgenealogy.com -
The Knisteneaux or Cree and Chippewa
The Knisteneaux, or Cree, are a nation materially different from the Esquimaux. They have a much nearer resemblance than that people to the other North American tribes, and, from close analogies in language, are considered as a branch of the great Algonquin stock, which, centering in the Canadas, spread over such an extent of the North American continent.
The country formerly occupied by the Knisteneaux for the ravages of the small-pox have in late years miserably reduced their numbers is of vast extent; lying between the United States and the Esquimaux region, and extending westward to the Rocky Mountains. The line of their occupation is thus given by Mackenzie: commencing with the coast of Labrador, it extends along the north bank of the St. Lawrence, to Montreal. “The line then follows the Utawas River to its source; and continues from thence nearly west along the high lands which divide the waters that fall into Lake Superior and Hudson s Bay. It then proceeds till it strikes the middle part of the river Winipic, following that water through the Lake Winipic, to the discharge of the Saskatchewan into it; from thence it accompanies the latter to Fort George, when the line striking by the head of the Beaver River, to the Elk River, runs along its banks to its discharge in the Lake of the Hills; from which it may be carried back east to the Isle a la Crosse, and so on to Churchill by the Mississippi. The whole of the tract between this line and Hudson’s Bay and Straits, (except that of the Esquimaux in the latter,) may be said to be exclusively the country of the Knisteneaux.” They were also to be found upon Red River, (which, after uniting with the Assinaboin, empties into Lake Winipic,) and upon the south branch of the Saskatchewan.
These people possess all the ordinary characteristics of the American Indian; the copper complexion, black flowing hair, well-proportioned limbs, and keen black eyes. Travelers speak of the women as being far more attractive in personal appearance than the generality of squaws. Upon them devolves all the drudgery of domestic life, while the men devote their exclusive attention to hunting or war.
We notice no very material variation, except so far as climate and the nature of their country have affected their habits, between the dress, habitations, luxuries, ceremonies, and general usages of the Knisteneaux, and the great body of our western Indians. They are spoken of as of a friendly and hospitable disposition, and no more dishonest in their dealings than other savages, although some have given them the reputation of being arrant thieves.
Little of distinctive character attaches to the various minor tribes of the north, until we reach the Esquimaux, with whom little or no commerce is held by these nations, and with whom, from time immemorial, they have waged a desultory warfare. Mackenzie describes individuals and villages of the Red-Knives, Beavers Indians, Dog-Ribs, Hares, Slaves, Duguthee Dines (quarrelers), and many others; but they have no history, and few noticeable peculiarities.
Those farthest north are of rather a lighter complexion than the inhabitants of more temperate climes, and exhibit the deteriorating influence of a life in a cold and desolate country.
Some interesting details of the habits and character of the Dog-Ribs, are given in the account of Sir John Richardson’s Arctic Searching Expedition. They are rather a low order of the race, and have held sufficient intercourse with the whites to be aware of their own deficiencies and wants. They are nevertheless cheerful, and even hilarious, and exhibit little or none of that proud and stoical spirit which marks the more celebrated Indian nations.
They are grossly improvident, although warned by repeated and terrible experience of famine and suffering. When game is plenty, a scene of general waste and repletion is presented, to be followed by the utmost misery and want. In a country where the animals upon which the natives depend for subsistence are migratory and uncertain in their habits, such changes of condition must be of frequent occurrence.
When accounts are brought of success on the part of the hunting parties, the whole population of a village put themselves at once en route to share the spoil. If the deer should have shifted their quarters before the arrival of the troop, and the place of rendezvous be far from home, the return is accompanied with the greatest danger and distress. Many of the aged and infirm are frequently left to perish under such circumstances.
Of several families of this nation, with whom Mackenzie held some intercourse, he says: “They are a meagre, ugly, ill-made people, particularly about the legs, which are very clumsy, and covered with scabs. The latter circumstance proceeds, probably, from their habitually roasting them be fore the fire. Many of them appeared to be in a very unhealthy state, which is owing, as I imagine, to their natural filthiness.”
The Chippewa are spread over a vast region at the north, the limits of which it would, perhaps, be impossible accurately to define. Mackenzie, writing about the year 1790, lays down the tract occupied by tribes who speak substantially the same language, as follows: “It begins at Churchill, and runs along the lines of separation between them and the Knisteneaux, up the Mississippi, to the Isle a la Crosse, passing on through the Buffalo Lake, River Lake, and Portage la Loche: from thence it proceeds by the Elk River, to the Lake of the Hills, and goes directly west to the Peace River; and up that river to its source and tributary waters; from whence it proceeds to the waters of the River Columbia; and follows that river to latitude fifty-two degrees twenty-four minutes north, and longitude one hundred and twenty-two degrees fifty-four minutes west, where the Chepewyans have the Atnah or Chin nation for their neighbors. It then takes a due line west to the sea-coast.”
The coast Indians, on the Pacific, differ from those of whom we are now treating. In the vicinity of Behring’s Straits, they are Esquimaux, but as we proceed southward, we find distinct and separate races.
The Chippewa, according to the writer above-quoted, are a quiet peaceable race, of a timorous disposition and wandering habits. They take great pains to prepare their dress so as to resist the extreme cold, and so well are they protected in this respect, that when arrayed in the warm furs and skins which form the winter attire, one of the tribe ” will lay himself down on the ice in the middle of a lake, and repose in comfort; though he will sometimes find a difficulty in the morning to disencumber himself of the snow drifted on him during the night.” The women are not bad looking, but the hard service of drawing loaded sledges, and the continued necessity of wearing the bulky and ponderous snow-shoe, give them a shuffling and awkward gait
Great ingenuity and skill are displayed by the Chippewa, particularly by those dwelling upon the head-waters of the Mississippi, in the construction of their birch-bark canoes. Probably in no other part of the world are boats to be found so light and portable, and yet capable of carrying an equal burden. They are commonly made of a single roll of the bark, neatly and strongly sewed, and so shaped, by the adaptation of light thwarts or braces, as to be both graceful and swift. It requires, however, no little adroitness to manage one of these light crafts, as the weight of the canoe is so trifling as to aid very little in the preservation of equilibrium. Sketches of Chippewa canoes are given by Mr. Catlin, and contrasted with the awkward tubs of the Mandan.
Mackenzie says that these people are not like the Knisteneaux and most other North American Indians, reserved and distant in their communications with strangers or with each other after a long separation; and that they do not exhibit those extremes of alternate energy and indolence so noticeable in other races.
In such a country as they inhabit their food must, of course, be almost entirely animal. They are more skilled in fishing, and in snaring deer, beaver, &c., than in the more active methods of securing game. Like the Esquimaux, although they prefer their meat cooked, they can well make a shift to eat it without any preparation, when unable to procure fuel. On their journeys they are sup ported by the nutritious and portable preparation called pemmican, which we have before mentioned as in use among the Esquimaux. It is made in the following manner: thin slices of lean meat are dried over a fire, or by alternate exposure to sun and frost, and then pounded between stones. A quantity of boiling fat, equal to the mass of meat, is then poured upon it, and the whole is closely packed in bags or basket. No salt or other condiment is used in the operation, but, in some instances, the pemmican is made savory by the addition of marrow and dried berries.
Some of the men are observed to be furnished with a thick bushy beard; but, generally speaking, the custom of eradicating this appendage is common to the Chippewa, as to most other of the Indian nations. Tattooing is common among both sexes, and serves as a distinguishing mark of the different tribes.
Article printed from Access Genealogy: http://www.accessgenealogy.com
URL to article: http://www.accessgenealogy.com/native/the-knisteneaux-or-cree-and-chippewa.htm
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The hippopotamus was feared by ancient Egyptians, and like other feared and respected animals in Egypt, it was associated with certain powers and woven into myths. The ancient Egyptians associated the hippopotamus with a deity -- two, in fact: One for the female hippopotamus and one for the male.
Female Hippos
Female hippos are fiercely protective of their young. A mother hippo spends much of her life raising and training her offspring. Misbehaving young hippos are quickly brought into line by mama's strong tusks, and anyone who dares come near her little ones has to get past her wide mouth and sharp teeth. Female hippopotamuses even babysit each other's offspring.
The Goddess Taweret
The ancient Egyptians took note of the traits of mother hippos and used them in the creation of the household goddess Taweret, or Taurt, who was depicted as having the head and body of a pregnant hippo, with the legs and mane of a lion and a crocodile's tail. Small statues of the goddess were often placed in homes with the expectation that Taweret would keep pregnant mothers and their children safe, or with the hope that she would increase fertility. She was also thought to be able to frighten away evil spirits, and her figure was sometimes worn around the neck as an amulet. The Egyptian city of Thebes was named after Taweret.
Male Hippos
Male hippopotamuses are dominant. They protect the herd's territory and make decisions about which males get to mate with which females. But they are not as ferocious as the females. In fact, when a male hippo approaches a female, he lies down on his belly until she accepts him, according to PBS' "Nature." Still, this doesn't mean that they aren't dangerous, and the ancient Egyptians were well aware of that fact.
The God Set
Male hippos were associated with the god Set, who was the god of wind and storms. A minor god who could not reproduce, Set was depicted as rather powerless, a god who was at one point chained by his wife -- who happened to be the powerful Taweret. Set was able to take the form of a hippo whenever he chose, as well as the forms of other animals considered dangerous by the Egyptians. Set was often also associated with the color red, and was sometimes depicted as a part-red hippo. This could be because hippos secrete a red substance that has antibiotic properties and protects hippos from the sun.
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Variations: Serre, Pristis, Vivella, Sawfish, Saw-fish, Flying Fish
The Serra (“saw”) or Saw-fish is a mainstay of bestiaries. Traditionally identified with the sawfish, it also includes features of the flying fish and comes with a ready moral message for the benefit of faithful readers.
Pliny mentions a fish named Pristis which is two hundred cubits (over 90 meters) long, is viviparous, and seemingly covered with hair. Pristis was also a common name given by Romans to ships. Isidore of Seville gives us the ur-description of the serra as a fish with a serrated (serratus) crest which cuts through boats as it swims under them.
Later additions expanded on this account. The serra is a huge seagoing fish or monster with gigantic fins. When it sees a ship, it spreads its fins, catching the wind, and chases after the vessel in an attempt to outspeed it. After two hundred yards the serra gets bored, folds its wings, and sinks back into the ocean. The ship represents the Righteous, who press on in the face of adversity, while the serra represents fickle and lazy people who start out trying to be Christians but discourage easily.
Why the serra chases after the ship is uncertain. The moral suggests jealousy, but the propensity of the serra to slice up ships with its saw-crest implies a more malevolent motive. Other accounts describe it as more bloodthirsty, sinking ships to feast on sailors, while some (perhaps confused with dolphins?) are said to take pity on sinking ships and lift them out of the waves.
The serra does not fly, instead using its massive fins move like a sailboat, but medieval artists commonly show it flying above ships anyway. Eventually the serra’s iconography was muddled with the dragon’s, and it became another dog-like or reptilian winged monster.
The position of the saw has also been a subject of contention. Isidore of Seville’s crest (crista) was interpreted in ways ranging from a rooster’s comb to a saw-edged dorsal fin. None of them locate the saw on the end of the nose.
Buel regards the sawfish as an innocent and inoffensive creature. The occasional attacks on boats are attributed to parasitic copepods, whose burrowing into the sawfish’s flesh drives the creature into delirious agony and causes it to lash out at anything nearby.
Aldrovandi, U. (1613) De Piscibus, Libri V. Bononiae.
Buel, J. W. (1887) Sea and Land. Historical Publishing Company, Philadelphia.
Druce, G. C. (1919) On the Legend of the Serra or Saw-fish. Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries, Second Series, v. 31.
Pliny; Bostock, J. and Riley, H. T. trans. (1900) The Natural History of Pliny, v. II. George Bell and Sons, London.
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Before the Revolution of 1917, Russian children received Christmas gifts from Baboushka, an old woman whose story is told in a Russian legend. Baboushka means "grandmother" in Russian. After the Revolution the government discouraged tales about folk characters like Baboushka, whose story refers to religious beliefs. Instead they promoted tales about completely secular characters such as Grandfather Frost, who currently serves as Russia's gift bringer. With the fall of Russia's Communist regime in 1991, many old beliefs and practices have been returning, and Baboushka may, too. Baboushka closely resembles the traditional Italian gift bringer, La Befana.
The Legend of Baboushka
A long time ago an old woman lived alone in a house by the road. She had lived alone so long that her days and her thoughts were filled only with sweeping, dusting, cooking, spinning, and scrubbing. One evening she heard the sound of trumpets and men approaching on horseback. She paused for a moment, wondering who they could be. Suddenly she heard a knock on her door. Upon opening it she discovered three noble men standing before her (see Magi). "We are journeying to Bethlehem to find the child who has been born a King," they told her. They invited Baboushka to join them. "I haven't finished my work," she replied "and the nights are so cold here. Perhaps it would be better if you came in by the fire." But the strangers would not delay their journey and departed into the night. Sitting by the fire, Baboushka began to wonder about the child and regret her decision to stay home. Finally she gathered a few trinkets from among her poor possessions and set off into the night. She walked and walked, inquiring everywhere for the lordly men and the newborn King, but she never found them. Each year on Epiphany Eve (or Twelfth Night) Baboushka searches Russia for the Christ child. She visits every house, and even if she doesn't find him, she still leaves trinkets for well-behaved children.
In one version of the tale, the wise men ask Baboushka the way to Bethlehem and she intentionally deceives them. In another, the wise men ask for lodgings for the night and Baboushka refuses them. In yet a third the Holy Family passes by her door on their journey from Bethlehem to Egypt (see Flight into Egypt; Holy Innocents' Day). They beg hospitality from her, but she turns them away with nothing. In spite of their differences, each story concludes in the same way. Baboushka regrets her lack of concern, seeks out the people she has rejected, and eventually becomes a magical figure who travels the world at Christmas time bringing gifts to children.
Further Reading
Del Re, Gerard, and Patricia Del Re. The Christmas Almanack. Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1979. Henderson, Yorke, et al. Parents' Magazine Christmas Holiday Book. New York: Parents'Magazine Press, 1972. Philip, Neil, ed. Christmas Fairy Tales. New York: Viking, 1996. Robbins, Ruth. Baboushka and the Three Kings. Berkeley, Calif.: Parnassus Press, 1960.
female Santa Claus on Feast of Epiphany. [Russ. Folklore: Walsh Classical, 50]
References in periodicals archive ?
The junior pupils performed in Baboushka, whilst the infants' production was called The Snowman's Christmas.
Amuse concept store, Azza Fahmy, Dina Ayesh Night, Ghazl Banat boutique, Lalloushi, Mohamed Al Sagheer, and Villa Baboushka are but some of the names set to open up their doors for participants.
On her world map placemat, she showed us Ukraine, where her friend Katya's baboushka lives.
The performance is about a little girl called Baboushka who cleans her little Russian house all day long to stop herself from noticing how lonely and sad she is.
St Paul's Church in Wales Primary School, Oakley Place, Grangetown, Cardiff, involved every pupil in productions of Cock-a-Doodle Christmas and Baboushka.
Russia is also seeing the return of the mythical Baboushka, banned under the Communists.
THE Sunday papers' estimates of her potential earnings ran into tens of millions which, let's face it, would not be the case if she was not a babe but a broad-beamed baboushka who looked like Betty Stove.
Ironically, a double of the aerialiste implied author is personified by the baboushka, a deeply embedded female narrator, whose voice opens the second part, entitled Petersburg, as well as Walser's report on his nights at the circus.
Johnston ages 4-8 Child's World, October 2002 The Seven Days of Kwanzaa by Angela Shelf Medearis ages 9-12 Scholastic, March 1997 Christmas: Baboushka and the Three Kings by Ruth Robbins (Russian) ages 4-8 Houghton Mifflin Co.
But later my friend saw this one being sold at an underground station by an old baboushka, so obviously the police sold them on
Right, Cara Jones played Baboushka in Llandegfan STAR TURN: Left, Huw Bebb, three, was the angry shepherd in Ysgol Bontnewydd's production.
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Art Study
Jews Fleeing War
Lisa Meyerowitz
At First Glance
What kind of journey does this painting depict? Cite evidence from the painting in your answer. Where are the figures coming from? How do you think the figures are feeling? Describe the elements of the image that make you think that. What might be the relationship between the figures? How do they interact with the landscape?
Read to Build Knowledge
Have you ever had a nightmare about being chased? Did you feel unable to move, yet somehow you reached your destination? Bernece Berkman’s Jews Fleeing War (1939) depicts four people moving through a deserted landscape as if in such a nightmare. A woman and a child move forward under the protection of a blue cloak. The woman’s face seems anxious, as if she is worried about being followed. Her large hand grips the small hand of her child, who also has an expression of worry or bewilderment. The young girl’s angled legs, one with a drooping red sock, suggest the chaos of their attempted escape. Behind them, a woman and a man carrying oddly shaped bags move in the same direction. Both wear scarves, and the figure on the top left covers her mouth with her hand—signs that they are hiding or running away. They cross a non-specific landscape of mountains and bare shrubs. It is a no-man’s land, except for white letters on the left that spell “RANCE”—hinting that it could be France, with the first letter “F” falling outside of the frame.
Given that this painting was made at the beginning of World War II (1939–1945), it likely shows a Jewish family fleeing the dangers of the Nazis. The canvas may reflect the journey of the artist’s father—a Jewish immigrant from Russia—and other Jews who were forced to abandon their homes in Europe and seek freedom elsewhere. Berkman herself was not an immigrant. She was born in Chicago in 1911 and briefly studied at the School of the Art Institute of Chicago. Like her teacher Todros Geller, Berkman was deeply committed to addressing social injustices in her work. She painted such themes in her own modern artistic style. She blended together elements of art movements that other European artists were participating in at the time, including Cubism and Expressionism. This style can be seen in Jews Fleeing War through Berkman’s use of sharp, flat geometric forms that break up the canvas, as well as in her expressive swirls of color used to depict the figures’ clothing and the landscape that engulfs them. Jews Fleeing War captures the dangers of migration—the struggle, the fear, and the emotional toll it takes on individuals. Berkman reminds us that leaving home is always difficult—especially when forced out by prejudice and hatred.
Analyze and interpret
1. How does Bernece Berkman’s painting convey the physical and emotional difficulties of migration? What details of the migrants’ journey does the artist include?
2. What do you see in the application of paint, style of lines, or colors that contributes to the sense of unease?
3. This is not a “pretty painting.” Why do you think Berence Berkman chose to paint this difficult subject in such an expressive way?
For further reading (teachers)
Oehler, Sarah Kelly. They Seek a City: Chicago and the Art of Migration 1910–1950. Chicago: Art Institute of Chicago, 2013.
Weininger, Susan. “Bernece Berkman.” In Chicago Modern, 1893–1945: The Pursuit of the New, edited by Elizabeth Kennedy, 91. Chicago: Terra Museum and University of Chicago Press, 2004.
Weininger, Susan. “Bernece Berkman,”
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